Bonobos Research Articles

Vertical climbing in free-ranging bonobos: An exploratory study integrating locomotor performance and substrate compliance.

Ecological factors and body size shape animal movement and adaptation. Large primates such as bonobos excel in navigating the demanding substrates of arboreal habitats. However, current approaches lack comprehensive assessment of climbing performance in free-ranging individuals, limiting our understanding of locomotor adaptations. This study aims to explore climbing performance in free-ranging bonobos and how substrate properties affect their behavior. We collected data on the climbing performance of habituated bonobos, Pan paniscus, in the Bolobo Territory, Democratic Republic of Congo. We analyzed 46 climbing bouts (12 ascents, 34 descents) while moving on vertical substrates of varying diameter and compliance levels. This study assessed the average speed, peak acceleration, resting postures, and transitions between climbing and other locomotor modes. During climbing sequences and transitions, bonobos mitigate speed variations. They also exhibit regular pauses during climbing and show higher speeds during descent in contrast to their ascent. Regarding the influence of substrate properties, bonobos exhibit higher speed when ascending on thin and slightly flexible substrates, while they appear to achieve higher speeds when descending on large and stiff substrates, by using a "fire-pole slide" submode. Bonobos demonstrate remarkable abilities for negotiating vertical substrates and substrate properties influence their performance. Our results support the idea that bonobos adopt a behavioral strategy that aligns with the notion of minimizing costs. Overall, the adoption of high velocities and the use of low-cost resting postures may reduce muscle fatigue. These aspects could represent important targets of selection to ensure ecological efficiency in bonobos.

Qualitative Behavioural Assessment of bonobo emotional expressivity across observer groups and zoo housing environments.

Human evaluation of animal emotional expressivity can inform animal welfare. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) has been applied to domesticated and some non-domesticated animals, but its use in primates is limited despite their emotional expressivity. We aimed to develop and apply a QBA for bonobos (Pan paniscus) through two consecutive studies. We applied Free Choice Profiling (FCP) and the Fixed List methodology, respectively, in Study 1 and 2, and invited students and bonobo experts to rate video clips of zoo-living bonobos of different sexes and age classes, and before and after moving to a new enclosure. In Study 1, students described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'angry/active' and dimension 2 from 'sad/anxious' to 'happy/loving'. Experts described dimension 1 ranging from 'quiet/relaxed' to 'nervous/alert' and dimension 2 from 'nervous/bored' to 'playful/happy'. Using a fixed list of descriptors, informed by findings from Study 1, students in Study 2 described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'agitated/frustrated', and dimension 2 from 'sad/stressed' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Experts described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'active/excited', and dimension 2 from 'sad/bored' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Students scored adults as more 'calm/quiet' and experts scored subadults as more 'happy/positively engaged'. Additionally, experts in Study 2 rated bonobos as more 'active/excited' in their new enclosure. Reliability was moderate to good for the dimensions. Additionally, animal-directed empathy of observers influenced QBA scores. This is the first time, FCP has been successfully used as a method to study primate emotional expressivity. Our findings show the promise of employing QBA in primate studies and in industry, with validation of additional metrics to enable its use for welfare-monitoring purposes.

Can the MT-CO2 gene surprise us with something? – A review of variants considered as pathogenic by identifying conserved sites

BackgroundCytochrome oxidase subunit II is encoded by the MT-CO2 gene and belongs to a large internal membrane complex called cytochrome c oxidase. To date, no pathogenic single nucleotide variant has been confirmed in this gene according to the MITOMAP database. The goal of this study was to review the literature and attempt to interpret all defined variants of the MT-CO2 gene, either directly associated with symptoms or only by the occurrence of variant in specific diseases. MethodsAvailable databases were searched for clinically relevant variants in the MT-CO2 gene. Variant interpretation was based on HelixMTdb frequency, identification of conserved sites in primates, particularly Pan paniscus and Pan troglodytes sequences from GenBank, MITOMAP data and the status of the Predict program. ResultsWe found 23 single nucleotide variants in 30 papers where the authors suspected or directly linked variants with a specific phenotype. The most common method sequencing method was Sanger sequencing in 17 papers, and the next-generation sequencing in 6 papers. ConclusionsOnly two potentially pathogenic variants m.8163A > G and m.7887G > A were found, meeting almost all the restrictive criteria for confirmed mitochondrial pathogenic variants. Unfortunately, none of the variants described in all of the papers/databases analysed can be unquestionably classified as pathogenic. Considering that this is a critical respiratory chain subunit gene, further research is needed.

Average phenotype but not plasticity in two metabolic hormones covary in wild female bonobos (Pan paniscus)

Each individual is equipped with a distinct genetic disposition and ontogenetic history and experiences environmental conditions in a unique way. As a result, individuals vary in terms of phenotypic differences regarding their responses to internal and external conditions. By modulating hormone secretion, an individual can react to changing conditions, thus maintaining homeostasis. Cortisol and triiodothyronine (T3) are involved in mediating energy homeostasis. The secretion of metabolic hormones enables individuals to respond flexibly to internal and external conditions. However, this flexibility may be constrained by tradeoffs between average hormone levels and the degree of hormonal plasticity and the impact of the HPA axis on T3 secretion and effects. Like many other species, bonobos (Pan paniscus) are confronted with rapid ecological and climatic perturbations, resulting in challenges to energetic homeostasis. Due to their limited genetic diversity, K-strategist and stenoecious species characteristics, they are predicted to have only limited potential for adaptation. Therefore, it is important to quantify individual cortisol and T3 reaction norms and examine their relationship with each other to understand the level of flexibility of metabolic hormone phenotypes. Using a multivariate random slope model, we found that diurnal urinary excretion patterns of cortisol and T3 in wild female bonobos have (i) no relationship between average phenotype and plasticity within the reaction norms of both hormones. (ii) We also found a negative correlation between the intercepts of the two metabolic hormones, but (iii) no relationship between their slopes. (iv) Standard deviations of cortisol and T3 intercepts and slopes between females indicate little variation among females. Our data show that plasticity within and between the two metabolic hormones is not related to overall low or high hormone levels, but there is a linear negative relationship between cortisol and T3 average phenotypes. Thus, individuals with high average cortisol levels, investing in restoring energy depots, have low average T3 levels, reducing energy expenditure, and vice versa. From this we conclude that the plasticity of diurnal hormone excretion is not affected by average metabolic hormone phenotypes. Evaluations of cortisol and T3 plasticity along ecological gradients can enhance our understanding of the adaptive potential of a given species to environmental changes.

Cooperation across social borders in bonobos.

Cooperation beyond familial and group boundaries is core to the functioning of human societies, yet its evolution remains unclear. To address this, we examined grooming, coalition, and food-sharing patterns in bonobos (Pan paniscus), one of our closest living relatives whose rare out-group tolerance facilitates interaction opportunities between groups. We show that, as in humans, positive assortment supports bonobo cooperation across borders. Bonobo cooperative attitudes toward in-group members informed their cooperative relationships with out-groups, in particular, forming connections with out-group individuals who also exhibited high cooperation tendencies. Our findings show that cooperation between unrelated individuals across groups without immediate payoff is not exclusive to humans and suggest that such cooperation can emerge in the absence of social norms or strong cultural dispositions.

Humans recognize affective cues in primate vocalizations: acoustic and phylogenetic perspectives

Humans are adept at extracting affective information from vocalizations of humans and other animals. However, the extent to which human recognition of vocal affective cues of other species is due to cross-taxa similarities in acoustic parameters or the phylogenetic closeness between species is currently unclear. To address this, we first analyzed acoustic variation in 96 affective vocalizations, taken from agonistic and affiliative contexts, of humans and three other primates—rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), chimpanzees and bonobos (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus). Acoustic analyses revealed that agonistic chimpanzee and bonobo vocalizations were similarly distant from agonistic human voices, but chimpanzee affiliative vocalizations were significantly closer to human affiliative vocalizations, than those of bonobos, indicating a potential derived vocal evolution in the bonobo lineage. Second, we asked 68 human participants to categorize and also discriminate vocalizations based on their presumed affective content. Results showed that participants reliably categorized human and chimpanzee vocalizations according to affective content, but not bonobo threat vocalizations nor any macaque vocalizations. Participants discriminated all species calls above chance level except for threat calls by bonobos and macaques. Our results highlight the importance of both phylogenetic and acoustic parameter level explanations in cross-species affective perception, drawing a more complex picture to the origin of vocal emotions.

Morphological integration and shape covariation between the trapezium and first metacarpal among extant hominids.

The shape of the trapezium and first metacarpal (Mc1) markedly influence thumb mobility, strength, and the manual abilities of extant hominids. Previous research has typically focused solely on trapezium-Mc1 joint shape. Here we investigate how morphological integration and shape covariation between the entire trapezium (articular and non-articular surfaces) and the entire Mc1 reflect known differences in thumb use in extant hominids. We analyzed shape covariation in associated trapezia and Mc1s across a large, diverse sample of Homo sapiens (n = 40 individuals) and other extant hominids (Pan troglodytes, n = 16; Pan paniscus, n = 13; Gorilla gorilla gorilla, n = 27; Gorilla beringei, n = 6; Pongo pygmaeus, n = 14; Pongo abelii, n = 9) using a 3D geometric morphometric approach. We tested for interspecific significant differences in degree of morphological integration and patterns of shape covariation between the entire trapezium and Mc1, as well as within the trapezium-Mc1 joint specifically. Significant morphological integration was only found in the trapezium-Mc1 joint of H. sapiens and G. g. gorilla. Each genus showed a specific pattern of shape covariation between the entire trapezium and Mc1 that was consistent with different intercarpal and carpometacarpal joint postures. Our results are consistent with known differences in habitual thumb use, including a more abducted thumb during forceful precision grips in H. sapiens and a more adducted thumb in other hominids used for diverse grips. These results will help to infer thumb use in fossil hominins.

Reproductive inequality among males in the genus Pan.

Reproductive inequality, or reproductive skew, drives natural selection, but has been difficult to assess, particularly for males in species with promiscuous mating and slow life histories, such as bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Although bonobos are often portrayed as more egalitarian than chimpanzees, genetic studies have found high male reproductive skew in bonobos. Here, we discuss mechanisms likely to affect male reproductive skew in Pan, then re-examine skew patterns using paternity data from published work and new data from the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Using the multinomial index (M), we found considerable overlap in skew between the species, but the highest skew occurred among bonobos. Additionally, for two of three bonobo communities, but no chimpanzee communities, the highest ranking male had greater siring success than predicted by priority-of-access. Thus, an expanded dataset covering a broader demographic range confirms that bonobos have high male reproductive skew. Detailed comparison of data from Pan highlights that reproductive skew models should consider male-male dynamics including the effect of between-group competition on incentives for reproductive concessions, but also female grouping patterns and factors related to male-female dynamics including the expression of female choice. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolutionary ecology of inequality'.

Captive bonobos (Pan paniscus) apply precision grips when using flaked stone tools.

Current evidence suggests that flaked stone tool technologies did not emerge until ~3.3-2.6 million-years-ago (Ma). It is often hypothesized that early hominin (principally Ardipithecus and early Australopithecus) manual anatomy may have prevented an earlier emergence, as the forceful precision grips essential to flake tool-use may have been ineffectively performed by these species. Marzke, Marchant, McGrew, and Reece (2015) observed potentially forceful pad-to-side precision grips being recruited by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) during feeding behaviors, indicating that Pan-like manual anatomy, and therefore potentially early hominin anatomy, may be capable of effectively securing flake stone tools during their use. Here, we report on the grips recruited by four captive, human-trained, bonobos (Pan paniscus) during the use of stone and organic tools, including flake stone tools during cutting behaviors. It is revealed that pad-to-side precision grips are frequently recruited by these bonobos when securing stone flakes during cutting actions. In some instances, high forces could have been resisted and applied by the thumb and fingers. While our analyzes are preliminary and limited to captive individuals, and Pan is not suggested to secure flakes with the same efficacy as Homo or Australopithecus, it points to early hominins potentially being able to perform the precision grips required to use flake stone tools. In turn, the ability to gain tangible benefits from the effective use of flake tools (i.e., gain energetic returns from processing food resources) may have been - at least anatomically - possible in early Australopithecus and other pre-Early Stone Age hominin species. In turn, hominin manual anatomy may not be a leading restriction on the emergence of the earliest stone tool technologies.

Great ape cognition is structured by stable cognitive abilities and predicted by developmental conditions

Great ape cognition is used as a reference point to specify the evolutionary origins of complex cognitive abilities, including in humans. This research often assumes that great ape cognition consists of cognitive abilities (traits) that account for stable differences between individuals, which change and develop in response to experience. Here, we test the validity of these assumptions by assessing repeatability of cognitive performance among captive great apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pongo abelii, Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes) in five tasks covering a range of cognitive domains. We examine whether individual characteristics (age, group, test experience) or transient situational factors (life events, testing arrangements or sociality) influence cognitive performance. Our results show that task-level performance is generally stable over time; four of the five tasks were reliable measurement tools. Performance in the tasks was best explained by stable differences in cognitive abilities (traits) between individuals. Cognitive abilities were further correlated, suggesting shared cognitive processes. Finally, when predicting cognitive performance, we found stable individual characteristics to be more important than variables capturing transient experience. Taken together, this study shows that great ape cognition is structured by stable cognitive abilities that respond to different developmental conditions.

The AliveCor KardiaMobile ECG device allows electrocardiogram assessment in awake bonobos (Pan paniscus).

To determine the diagnostic utility of a smartphone-based ECG device (Alivecor KardiaMobile) in awake bonobos (Pan paniscus). 7 adult bonobos in human care. Bonobos were trained with positive reinforcement to hold 1 finger from each hand onto the KardiaMobile sensors for 30 seconds to obtain an ECG reading. Ten ECG tracings were recorded from each bonobo and evaluated by a veterinarian, a veterinary cardiologist, and a human cardiologist for tracing quality, tracing length, heart rate, identification of P-waves, and presence and quantification of premature ventricular or atrial contractions. 6 of the 7 bonobos were trained within 21 weeks to allow the collection of 10 diagnostic quality ECG tracings. The average heart rate recorded was 87 bpm (range = 60 to 118 bpm). Potential abnormalities identified by the KardiaMobile included premature ventricular contractions in 2 male bonobos and 1 premature atrial contraction in another male. There was strong agreement by reviewers in all ECG parameters except for the identification of P-waves. The Alivecor KardiaMobile device has diagnostic utility as a screening tool for use in bonobos in human care. The training was accomplished to yield diagnostic ECG readings of acceptable duration in awake bonobos. Given the prevalence of cardiovascular disease in great apes, this technology may identify a subset of great apes who may benefit from early intervention and treatment in an effort to delay the progression of cardiac disease.

Golden-bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus chrysogaster) exhibit a larger home range and longer travel distances than those of bonobos (Pan paniscus) at LuiKotale, Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Primate ranging behavior is associated with numerous social and ecological correlates. Interspecific comparisons of ranging behavior can therefore provide insight into the socio-ecological conditions that characterize a species' niche within its community. We provide the first description of ranging behavior in golden-bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus chrysogaster), using sympatric bonobos (Pan paniscus) as a comparison. Over 6 months, we recorded GPS tracks at 1- and 5-min intervals from one habituated golden-bellied mangabey group and two habituated bonobo communities at LuiKotale, central Democratic Republic of the Congo. We compared estimates of home range size, time spent at different elevations, and hourly travel distances between species. We modeled daily travel distances against total monthly rainfall to investigate seasonal variation in daily ranging. The golden-bellied mangabey home range was similarly sized or larger than each of the two bonobo communities at LuiKotale across estimation methods. Mangabeys visited more of their range per day and spent more time in terra firma forest and less time in swamps than bonobos. Mangabeys traveled significantly farther per day and during midday hours than bonobos, but travel distances did not relate to monthly rainfall in either species. Golden-bellied mangabeys exhibited wide daily ranging behavior that more closely resembled that of sympatric bonobos than other Cercocebus species. Large homes ranges in mangabeys are likely influenced by food availability in terra firma forest, especially as groups appear to travel long distances between fruit trees and terrestrial food patches. Maximizing daytime activity may help mangabeys avoid competition from heterospecifics and indicates temporal niche partitioning in this primate community.

Neopterin Levels in Bonobos Vary Seasonally and Reflect Symptomatic Respiratory Infections

As environmental changes exacerbate the threat coming from infectious diseases in wild mammal species, monitoring their health and gaining a better understanding of the immune functioning at the species level have become critically important. Neopterin is a biomarker of cell-mediated immune responses to intracellular infections. We investigated the variation of urinary neopterin (uNeo) levels of wild, habituated bonobos (Pan paniscus) in relation to individual and environmental factors. We used 309 urine samples collected between 2010 and 2018 at the LuiKotale field site, DRC. Based on current knowledge on zoo-housed conspecifics and closely related species, we predicted uNeo levels to increase (1) during infections, (2) with increasing age, (3) over the gestation period and in estrous females; and (4) to vary seasonally. Our results showed uNeo levels varied over a one-year period and increased in individuals showing respiratory symptoms. Contrary to chimpanzees, uNeo levels did not vary with age or female reproductive status, possibly due to our small sample size. Our study provides a baseline for a better understanding of bonobo’s immunocompetence in the context of socio-ecological pressures and for monitoring the health of wild populations.

Malaria-driven adaptation of MHC class I in wild bonobo populations

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum causes substantial human mortality, primarily in equatorial Africa. Enriched in affected African populations, the B*53 variant of HLA-B, a cell surface protein that presents peptide antigens to cytotoxic lymphocytes, confers protection against severe malaria. Gorilla, chimpanzee, and bonobo are humans’ closest living relatives. These African apes have HLA-B orthologs and are infected by parasites in the same subgenus (Laverania) as P. falciparum, but the consequences of these infections are unclear. Laverania parasites infect bonobos (Pan paniscus) at only one (TL2) of many sites sampled across their range. TL2 spans the Lomami River and has genetically divergent subpopulations of bonobos on each side. Papa-B, the bonobo ortholog of HLA-B, includes variants having a B*53-like (B07) peptide-binding supertype profile. Here we show that B07 Papa-B occur at high frequency in TL2 bonobos and that malaria appears to have independently selected for different B07 alleles in the two subpopulations.

Blood pressure monitoring in zoologically managed bonobos (Pan paniscus).

In response to the growing evidence that hypertension may play a significant role in the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in bonobos, the Great Ape Heart Projectestablished a finger blood pressure (BP) monitoring protocol for zoo-housed bonobos. The ability to monitor BP without the use of anesthesia provides more opportunities to detect potential hypertension in its early stages allowing for therapeutic intervention that may slow the progression of CVD. No BP reference ranges exist for bonobos due to the lack of an established protocol, the difficulty of measuring BP in animals, and small sample size of zoo-housed bonobos. By working with all 8 institutions in North America that care for bonobos, it was possible to (1) investigate the feasibility of using finger BP devices, and (2) establish BP trends for male and female bonobos. Data were collected from May 2016 to March 2019. Zoos were asked to train for and collect BP measurements from any bonobos willing to participate, regardless of age, sex, or health status as well as to report on the quality of the training and measurements obtained. At the start of the study, the North American bonobo population consisted of 74 bonobos ages 5 years and older at 8 institutions. All 8 institutions submitted at total of 3656 BP readings from 50 bonobos (n = 23 females, n = 27 males; ages 5-51 years) representing 67.57% of the trainable population ages 5 years and older. Of the readings submitted, 2845 were determined to be good quality, reliable BP readings (77.81% useful BP measurements) for 36 of the 50 adult bonobos submitted for this study (59.01% of the adult population ages 10-51 years) but showed limitations in the protocol for the younger population. BP trend analysis showed significant differences between bonobos that were not on medication versus those treated with cardiac medications, with those on cardiac mediations having significantly higher systolic arterial pressure, diastolic arterial pressure, and mean arterial pressure(p ≤ 0.001 for all comparisons). Systolic BP generally increased over age classes (10-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40+ years).

The deep trabecular structure of first metacarpals in extant hominids.

Recent studies have associated subarticular trabecular bone distribution in the extant hominid first metacarpal (Mc1) with observed thumb use, to infer fossil hominin thumb use. Here, we analyze the entire Mc1 to test for interspecific differences in: (1) the absolute volume of trabecular volume fraction, (2) the distribution of the deeper trabecular network, and (3) the distribution of trabeculae in the medullary cavity, especially beneath the Mc1 disto-radial flange. Trabecular bone was imaged using micro-computed tomography in a sample of Homo sapiens (n= 11), Pan paniscus (n= 10), Pan troglodytes (n= 11), Gorilla gorilla (n= 10) and Pongo sp., (n= 7). Using Canonical Holistic Morphometric Analysis (cHMA), we tested for interspecific differences in the trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and its relative distribution (rBV/TV) throughout the Mc1, including within the head, medullary cavity, and base. P. paniscus had the highest, and H. sapiens the lowest, BV/TV relative to other species. rBV/TV distribution statistically distinguished the radial concentrations and lack of medullary trabecular bone in the H. sapiens Mc1 from all other hominids. H. sapiens and, to a lesser extent, G. gorilla also had a significantly higher trabecular volume beneath the disto-radial flange relative to other hominids. These results are consistent with differences in observed thumb use in these species and may also reflect systemic differences in bone volume fraction. The trabecular bone extension into the medullary cavity and concentrations beneath the disto-radial flange may represent crucial biomechanical signals that will aid in the inference of fossil hominin thumb use.

Between-group variation in production of pant-grunt vocalizations by wild bonobos (Pan paniscus)

The potential for aggression is inherent in social interaction, and strategies to reduce the costs of aggression are ubiquitous among group-living animals. One strategy employed by lower-ranking individuals in a variety of species is the production of subordination signals, which are formal signals that communicate the signaler’s inferior status relative to the recipient of the signal. Here, we report the results of our investigations into (1) the presence and usage of the pant-grunt vocalization in two populations of wild bonobos; (2) the relationship between the production of pant-grunts and agonistic predictability across the genus Pan. We find stark differences in production of pant-grunts in the two populations: bonobos at the LuiKotale field site regularly used pant-grunts as a signal of subordination (primarily, though not exclusively, among male-male dyads); in contrast, at the Kokolopori field site, adult bonobos were never observed producing pant-grunts. Across Pan, we find weak support for an association between agonistic predictability and production of pant-grunt vocalizations.Significance statementThere have been conflicting reports on whether bonobos, like chimpanzees, produce the submissive pant-grunt vocalization. We confirm the presence of the pant-grunt in the bonobo vocal repertoire, and document variation in its production across communities. We also suggest that variation in pant-grunt production across the genus Pan may be explained by the predictability of dominance interactions.

First Reconstructive Plastic Surgery of the Perineum in a Hominin <i>Pan paniscus</i> (Bonobo) and Plea by a Plastic Surgeon for Surgery for the Benefit of All Hominins (Members of the Human Lineage)

First Reconstructive Plastic Surgery of the Perineum in a Hominin <i>Pan paniscus</i> (Bonobo) and Plea by a Plastic Surgeon for Surgery for the Benefit of All Hominins (Members of the Human Lineage)

Traces of dietary patterns in saliva of hominids: Profiling salivary amino acid fingerprints in great apes and humans

Herbivorous animals that regularly consume tannin-rich food are known to secrete certain tannin-binding salivary proteins (TBSPs), especially proline-rich proteins and histidine-rich proteins, as an effective measure to counteract the antinutritive effects of dietary tannins. Due to their high binding capacity, TBSPs complex with tannins in the oral cavity, and thereby protect dietary proteins and digestive enzymes. Although the natural diet of great apes (Hominidae) is biased toward ripe fruits, analyses of food plants revealed that their natural diet contains considerable amounts of tannins, which is raising the question of possible counter-measures to cope with dietary tannins. In our study, we investigated the salivary amino acid profiles of zoo-housed Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, and Pongo abelii, and compared their results with corresponding data from Homo sapiens. Individual saliva samples of 42 apes and 17 humans were collected and quantitated by amino acid analysis, using cation-exchange chromatography with postcolumn derivatization, following acid hydrolysis. We found species-specific differences in the salivary amino acid profiles with average total salivary protein concentration ranging from 308.8 mg/dL in Po. abelii to 1165.6 mg/dL in G. gorilla. Total salivary protein was consistently higher in ape than in human saliva samples (174 mg/dL). All apes had on average also higher relative proline levels than humans did. Histidine levels had the highest concentration in the samples from Po. abelii followed by P. paniscus. In all ape species, the high salivary concentrations of proline and histidine are considered to be indicative of high concentrations of TBSPs in hominids. Given that the species differences in salivary composition obtained in this study correspond with overall patterns of secondary compound content in the diet of wild populations, we assume that salivary composition is resilient to acute and long-lasting changes in diet composition in general and tannin content in particular.

Genomic Study of TCF7L2 Gene Mutation on Insulin Secretion for Type 2 DM Patients: A Review

Aim: This paper aims to establish whether a correlation between TCF7L2 gene mutation on insulin secretion for Type 2 DM Patients.
 Background: Diabetes type 2 is the most common metabolic disorder worldwide. Beta cell dysfunction reduces insulin secretion and increases the glucose level in the blood and insulin resistance that raises the glucose production in the liver and decreases the glucose uptake to muscle, liver, and adipose tissue causing hyperglycemia (T2DM). TCF7L2 (transcription factor 7–like 2) works as a nuclear Receptor for CTNNB1(B catenin) that mediated the WNT signaling pathway (a group of signal transduction pathways made of proteins that pass signals from outside a cell through cell surface receptors to the inside of the cell) and any variation will cause the development of T2DM.
 Methods: GenBank in NCBI database was used to extract the DNA sequence and mRNA sequence of the TCF7L2 gene (an accession number of the gene, number of amino acids, exons, and length of nucleotides). FASTA format was also useful to retrieve the nucleotide sequence and get the function of the protein. BLAST was used to compare the protein product of the TCF7L2gene between humans and gorillas, and pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus).
 Results: The accession number is NC_000010.11, the number of amino acids in the protein product is 602, the number of exons found is 20 and the gene is in chromosome 10. Finally, many organisms have the same gene as dogs, cows, mice, rats, zebrafish, and frogs.
 Conclusion: There is a strong association between TCF7L2 (transcription factor 7–like 2) alleles (rs7903146) T alleles and T2DM. It was found that there is a high frequency of diabetic type two patients having TCF7L2 (transcription factor 7–like 2) alleles (rs7903146) with a high frequency of the T allele.