Pan Diameter Research Articles

Examination of Maximum Temperature of Hot Gas Layer in Fire in Corridor Using Reduced Model Experiments

In this study, the maximum temperature of the hot gas layer in a fire in a corridor was investigated using a reduced model. Round fuel pans with different diameters were used. Experiments for Case_C (both sides of the test section were open, and the fire source was at the center of the floor) and Case_S (one side of the test section was open, the other side was closed, and the fire source was located near the closed side) were conducted. Under the same fuel pan diameter conditions, the heat release rate of Case_S was higher than that of Case_C. Near the fire source, the maximum temperature rises of the hot gas layers in Case_C and Case_S were similar; however, at a distance from the fire source, Case_S showed a higher maximum temperature rise of the hot gas layer than Case_C. The maximum temperature rise of the hot gas layer in Case_C depended more on the distance from the fire source and heat release rate than that in Case_S, and the previous correlation under-predicted the present experimental data of the maximum temperature rise of the hot gas layer. In addition, at a distance from the fire source, the measurement position corresponding to the maximum temperature rise of the hot gas layer in Case_S was lower than that in Case_C.

Experimental Investigation on the Impact of Varying Air-Inlet Widths and Fuel Pan Diameters on Fire Whirls’ Combustion Characteristics

A fire whirl, a unique fire behavior, occurs when a vertical vortex of flames skyrockets due to specific surrounding temperatures and thermal gradient conditions during a fire. Compared with conventional fire plumes, fire whirls exhibit a higher air entrainment rate, tangential velocity, and axial velocity, thus presenting greater risks and destructive capabilities. Thus, studying the combustion characteristics of fire whirls becomes necessary. This experiment employed a small-scale, fixed-frame fire whirl generator. We investigated how varying air-inlet widths and fuel pan diameters influence the fire whirl’s combustion characteristics. Experimental images indicated a negative correlation between the fire whirl’s flame height and the air-inlet width, and a positive correlation with the fuel pan diameter. Our findings showed that the burning rate of the fire whirl during the quasi-steady-state combustion phase initially increased and then decreased as the air-inlet width expanded, peaking at a width of 7 cm. The data demonstrated a corresponding power-law relationship between the fire whirl’s dimensionless flame height and excess temperature. Ultimately, our results indicated a positive correlation between the 2/5 power of the fire whirl’s dimensionless heat release rate and the dimensionless flame height. The ratios of maximum to mean flame height and mean to continuous flame height are 1.35 and 1.5, respectively. Significantly, these ratios remain unaffected by the air-inlet width, fuel pan diameter, environmental temperature, and heat release rate.

Continuous boilover behaviors of large-scale kerosene pool fires under sub-atmospheric pressure

Accidental fire is a major safety concern in chemical parks, highlighted by the several major fire accidents involving storage tanks in recent years. Boilover is considered as one of the most destructive tank fire scenarios, which occurs when a liquid fuel burning on a water layer, leading to the explosive evaporation of water and consequently a sudden increase of the heat release rate (HRR) and associated flame height due to the splashing of burning fuel. Previous studies on boilover with large-scale pool fires were mostly conducted under normal atmospheric pressure. However, chemical parks are often located in plateau regions, where the effects of reduced pressure on boilover behaviors were rarely examined. Moreover, following the initial boilover, continuous boilover could occur, and its understanding is particularly important in the thermal hazard and risk analysis and firefighting of tank fires. In this study, thin-layer boilover experiments were conducted under sub-atmospheric pressure using aviation kerosene (RP-3) with various initial fuel thicknesses and pool diameters. The burning process, boilover intensity, temperature in the fuel and water layers and associated thermal hazard were analyzed. Experimental results showed that continuous boilover occurred in all test conditions, characterized by a high intensity initial boilover followed by a series of subsequent ones with gradually reduced intensity. The mass burning rate and flame height varied significantly during boilover. It was found that the boilover intensity increases with the initial fuel thickness but decreases with the pool diameter and approaches a nearly constant value when the pan diameter is sufficiently large. The temperature at the fuel/water interface was found to increase from 93 ℃ to around 108 ℃ during boilover, both of which are lower than those observed under normal atmospheric pressure due to reduced water boiling point. The thermal hazard calculated for the initial boilover is highest as expected, and that of subsequent boilovers gradually decreases but could still be higher than that at the steady burning stage. The findings in this work will contribute to risk assessment of continuous boilover in fire accidents.

Effect of ventilation on carbon monoxide and soot particles emissions in a confined and mechanically-ventilated fire

Fire behavior in a 1 m3 confined and mechanically ventilated compartment is investigated experimentally. The main objective is to study carbon monoxide and soot particle emissions by four different fuels: pure n-heptane, technical-grade dodecane, kerosene Jet A-1, and Mobil DTE oil heavy medium. Air Renewal rates are set at 4.83 ACH, 9.67 ACH, and 17.8 ACH, while the fuel pan diameters are 0.115 m, 0.14 m, and 0.19 m. The results show that decreasing the renewal rate or increasing the pan size decreases the mass loss rate and soot emissions. However, CO emissions increase. Lighter fuels exhibit higher mass loss rates and CO emissions than heavier fuels. The highest smoke temperatures are produced at high renewal rates and large pan diameters. Meanwhile, soot emission levels decrease in the order of kerosene > dodecane > Mobil oil > heptane. High levels of soot but low CO emissions are present in well-ventilated fires. However, high CO but low soot emissions appear in under-ventilated fires. The soot particles collected in the smoke layer show unimodal distribution. The modal diameter of the particles ranges from 220 nm to 300 nm.

Thermal and spectral analysis of a pool fire in an engine compartment: Experimental study on the influence of ventilation and fuel depth

Engine fire hazards in vehicles are a threat to the personnel, inducing potential fatal injuries as well as damage to the vehicles themselves and their operational capabilities. Thus, it is important to assess the fire dynamics inside a non-confined engine compartment, here with an engine-cooling fan flow. A n-heptane pool fire was used to conduct a parametric study varying pan diameter, fuel depth and ventilation flow rate in a scale 1 compartment representative of the engine block of an APC (Armored Personnel Carrier). The results showed that an increase of the ventilation flow rate decreases the mean top temperature alongside the hood but increases the mean temperature in the wheel arches. The latter can be explained by the movement of hot gases to the sides of the compartment and was confirmed with a side to center temperature ratio. For the biggest ventilation flow rate, the temperature in the wheel arches of the compartment exceeds the temperature directly above the flame in the steady state of the fire. This temperature evolves linearly along the slope of the hood. A spectral analysis of the flame showed that the oscillation frequency is tied to the pan diameter from standard correlations but is insensitive to the fuel depth or ventilation flow rate investigated range.

Deep learning based river surface ice quantification using a distant and oblique-viewed public camera

Long-term monitoring of surface ice concentration and ice pan properties are of great importance for understanding river freeze-up processes but current data are limited due to challenging winter environments. This study investigated the use of oblique images of river surfaces captured at long focus distances for long-term monitoring of surface ice conditions. Image data from a public camera mounted on a building roof top captured during five freeze-up seasons was used. A deep learning based hybrid image processing algorithm consisting of image classification, rectification, segmentation and extraction of river ice properties was developed to compute surface ice concentrations as well as ice pan size and shape properties. The validity and accuracy of the image data and processing algorithms were evaluated. Time series of multi-year surface ice concentrations as well as size distributions and shape properties of ice pans during freeze-up on the North Saskatchewan River are presented. A lognormal distribution was found to fit the ice pan size distributions for all years. Overall the size and shape of ice pans were relatively stable from year to year. The diameter of ice pans ranged from 0.55 m ∼ 15.03 m with a mean size of 1.82 m. The ice pans are generally elliptical shaped. The daily mean ice pan diameter varied from ∼1 m to ∼3 m. Properties of slushy and crusty ice pans were also estimated by visually separating image periods with dominant ice pan types and it was found that slushy ice pans were generally smaller and slightly less irregular compared to crusty ice pans. This study demonstrates that accurate long-term monitoring of river ice conditions as well as statistical properties of ice pans can be obtained using images captured by a distant and oblique-viewed camera that was not intentionally set up for ice research.

Influence of air intake position on heat feedback to the fuel surface in mechanically ventilated compartment - An experimental study

The objective of this work is to study the effects of air intake position on the burning behaviour of liquid pool inside a compartment mechanically ventilated thanks to an exhaust fan. We analysed notably the key issue relevant to the vaporization process at the fuel surface which depends on the external heat feedback and controls the heat release rate.Results indicated that this external flux, which is the sum of radiant heat fluxes from hot gases and compartment internal surfaces, can have a significant contribution to the radiant heat transmitted to the fuel surface. This contribution will depend on air intake position, fuel parameters and on the characteristic length scale of the enclosure. With an air intake duct in high position, the heat flux from walls seems to be blocked by the smoke present in the compartment, whereas with air intake in low position, the pool fire is subject to non-negligible radiation from both the compartment surfaces and hot gases, even if oxygen concentration decreases close to the pool and reaches a low value representative of underventilated fires. These observations were made for heptane fires inside a reduced scale enclosure with a length/height and width of 2 m, and with different pan diameters and Air Change Per Hour (ACPH). These observations were allowed thanks to measurements of radiant heat fluxes, fuel Mass Loss Rate (MLR), oxygen concentration and temperature. It is also shown that when the air inlet duct is located in the upper part, poor air circulation is observed in the room and the oxygen level in the vicinity of the fire location is insufficient. This results in fire extinction due to a lack of oxygen. On the other hand, a low inlet duct enhances air circulation in the compartment, facilitating air supply towards the burning liquid pool; in this case, fire is extinguished by lack of fuel after a well established steady state phase. Results show that the MLR is always greater when the air enters by the lower part of the room, regardless of the oxygen concentration around the flame.Therefore, air intake position influences burning behaviour by influencing heat feedback to the liquid fuel surface and availability of sufficient oxygen. Furthermore, a rise of ACPH logically results in an increase of MLR.

An experimental study on flame geometry in wind-blown pool fires and a new dimensionless parameter

In order to study the relationship between wind speed and such combustion characteristics as pool fire flame length, tilt angle, combustion mass loss rate and heat release rate, a small round diesel pool fire with wind-blown experimental platform was built. The wind speed was 0–1 m/s and the oil pan diameters were 0.218 m, 0.175 m and 0.13 m, respectively. A new dimensionless parameter Hr is defined to describe the effects of buoyancy, initial momentum and horizontal wind force on flame length and tilt angle. The results show that when 0<Hr<0.33, horizontal wind can enhance flame length. When Hr≥0.33, it exerts a suppressive effect on flame length. A prediction model of the relation between flame length, tilt angle and Hr is introduced. In addition, an expression of flame tilt angle in relation to dimensionless wind speed u*, as well as the empirical equations of mass loss rate and heat release rate of pool fire in relation to horizontal wind speed was obtained experimentally.

Interrelationships Between Coating Uniformity and Efficiency in Pan Coating Processes.

The relationships between coating uniformity and efficiency were explored for tablet coating processes in pan coaters. The factors affecting the size of the spray zone were modeled using one-dimensional deposition analysis of spray droplets. This model was incorporated into the analytical model developed for coating uniformity by Choi et al. (AAPS PharmSciTech 22(7), 2021) that farther elucidated the effects of tablet shape and bed porosity. The results were compared with literature data on coating efficiency. The variables examined included tablet shape and size, coating time, pan speed, atomizing and pattern air flow rates, bed porosity, spray rate, batch size, coating solution concentration, spray gun-to-bed distance, and pan diameter. It is shown that, except for pan diameter and atomizing air flow rate, variables that improve coating efficiency adversely affected coating uniformity and vice versa. Implications of these relationships are discussed to improve formulation, process, and equipment designs.

Modelling of unsteady pool fires – fuel depth and pan wall effects

This paper presents physics-inspired mathematical model to predict the time varying burn rate of unsteady pool fires. The model benefits from the observations on the thermal behaviour and select data from systematically and carefully designed experiments on small and large pool fires of n-heptane and small pool fires of diesel, kerosene and ethanol fuels. All modelling features are based on dimensionless quantities. Amongst the three controlling heat transfer mechanisms, convection is dealt with simply. However, conduction and radiant heat transfer models have needed new considerations. A combination of steady and unsteady conduction along the pan wall affected by the thermal properties of the wall material and liquid phase conduction are modelled and validated against specific experiments. Radiant heat transfer modelling differs from the conventional approach to account for fuel depth-dependent enhancement in burn flux in small pans to values comparable to large pool fires. The radiation view factor invokes mass flux based Reynolds number to account for fuel depth-related effects. Several constants are modelled in terms of dimensionless parameters constructed from a large number of physical variables of the pan and the fuel and used in the model such that they allow the best fits between the simulation and a part of the experimental data. All the sub-models combined into a surface heat flux balance provide the temporal variation of the mass depletion as also the relative magnitudes of the fluxes in a MATLAB code. Comparisons of the predictions on the dependence of the burn behaviour on fuel depth, free board, pan diameter and wall material with the experimental data of the present authors and from literature on n-heptane are set out. Comparisons between the predictions and experimental data on diesel, kerosene and ethanol are also set out to show the ability of the model to track the mass loss history based on fundamental properties of the fuel and the pan. The outstanding-to-good quality of predictions in most cases is attributed to the necessary physics taken into account in the model.

Experimental investigation on burning characteristics of diesel pool fires in naturally ventilated compartment

SummaryIn this study, experiments were performed in a 4 m × 4 m × 4 m compartment having a door size of 2 m × 1 m in the front wall. The pan diameter has been varied from 0.2 to 1.0 m in order to evaluate parameters, such as mass loss rate, CO/CO2 yield, global equivalence ratio (GER), flame height, flame pulsation frequency and total heat flux within the compartment. Experimental mass loss flux was found to be 0.23 times lesser than the mass loss flux obtained with an open fire test. A correlation was developed to estimate the flame height for compartment fire as the function of pool diameter and heat release rate. Pulsation frequency has been well correlated with previous studies for smaller pool sizes, due to no interaction between the flame tip and upper smoke layer. However, for a larger pool, this seems to be deviated due to a larger smoke layer thickness. Heat flux variations were observed to follow power law trends for all the inner surfaces of the compartment with respect to pool diameters. This investigation is also essential for better understanding of diesel (sooty) fuel burning effects with respect to pool size in a compartment having well‐ventilated door opening.

Experimental Investigation on Diesel Fire Toxicity in a Compartment Under Different Pool Locations

The objective of this study is to investigate how the location of fire source impacts the species generation. From the standpoint of fire safety, toxicity need to be estimated from the product gases evolved under different conditions of pool fire inside the compartment. However, industries like chemical, nuclear and thermal power plants also possess fuel positions significantly above the floor level inside an enclosure. Also, marine diesel fuel storage position in the ship cabin is just above the base, which implies an elevated pool fire conditions. In the present investigation, the severity of product gases with different pan diameters (ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 m) along with diesel fuel pan elevations in terms of toxicity were analysed. In order to study the behaviour of various fuel position, a large pool diameter 0.8 m was burned in centre, corner and rear wall centre along with six different fire source elevation. Results were analysed in terms of heat release rate (HRR), ratio of CO2/CO, upper hot gas temperature, residence time of upper hot gas, CO yield, CO2 yield and fractional effective dose (FED). The maximum HRR was obtained in the range of 10 kW to 1100 kW. For large pool diameter, results of CO2/CO ratio shows exponential decay trend along with fuel pan elevation, the maximum concentration of CO increased with increase in ceiling temperature showed parabolic trend. Moreover, lower CO2/CO ratio addresses incomplete combustion and thereby leads to higher toxicity inside the compartment.

The character of residential cooktop fires

A series of experiments was conducted to investigate the global preignition and combustion characteristics of corn oil heated in 9.7 to 26 cm diameter pans by a residential electric-coil element cooktop. For comparison, torch-ignited gasoline, heptane, and corn oil experiments were conducted in the same configuration except without the heating element energized. Heating oil on a typical electric cooktop leads to vaporization and generation of an aerosol cloud followed by autoignition. The evolution of the light-extinction coefficient before autoignition is measured and shown to be related to the pan diameter and initial fuel mass. Continued heating leads to enhanced vaporization of the burning oil and growing fires with the peak heat release rate, radiative heat flux, radiative fraction, and peak flame height larger than the gasoline fires regardless of pan diameter. CO and soot yields, and the CO/CO2 ratio are measured to decrease with pan diameter.

Effects of ventilation conditions and procedures during a fire in a reduced-scale room

This paper deals with the consequences of applying ventilation procedures during confined fires. If the air intake duct is closed after the beginning of the fire, another risk may appear, namely the ignition of unburnt gases in extraction ducts. This configuration is typical of many industrial installations equipped with ventilation networks. Heptane and dodecane pool fires were performed in a reduced-scale compartment equipped with a mechanical ventilation network. Heat release rate, temperatures and unburnt species concentration were measured for different pan diameters, different ventilation flows, with and without closing the intake duct, to study fire development and the potential risk of ignition in the exhaust system. Empirical correlations to estimate unburnt species concentrations are given. Based on these correlations, lower flammability limit calculations and scaling laws, a risk assessment methodology is proposed and a decision support tool is provided. Experimental results clearly show that the auto-ignition of unburnt gases can happen near the extraction duct, with and without closing the intake duct.

Horizontal Coffee Roaster Design with Temperature and Time Control

National coffee have bean production reaches 600,000 tons for a year, only 20% that can be processed and marketed in to secondary products by roasted coffee, ground coffee, fast food coffee, and several types of secondary products derived from its derivatives and processing. The factors need to be considered when roasting, including temperature, time, expertise, and roasting techniques with a tool that is designed has dimension length 50 cm width 45 cm and height 110 cm. Coffee beans are roasted using a teflon griddle without a 25 cm cover diameter and Teflon griddle with a 16 cm cover diameter. The treatments studied were temperatures around 180 to 215 o C with 12 minutes roasting time. The temperature treatment and roasting time affect the changes in mechanical physical properties of the coffee, namely a faster decrease in water content, increased fragility and accelerate changes in the color of darkness. Roaster machine based on microcontroller using gas fuel is made only 3 settings of coffee profile results, namely light, medium and dark with a light time of 12.8 minutes, medium 17 minutes and dark 25 minutes with a temperature setting of 245 degrees Celsius. The price of "roaster" is still very high because all the roasted tools in Indonesia are mostly imported so that they are not affordable by the household industry scale in relatively low income. So the authors make a prototype of a horizontal roaster model while still emphasizing traditional methods with temperature and time control. Temperature and time control here can be used to obtain the desired coffee profile qualit to reproduce creations roasted results. The dimensions are also small with a height of 60 cm, a width of 50 cm and a length of 60 cm and a frying pan diameter of 30 cm to hold 2 kg of coffee. This tool is designed with stainless steel and other parts used easily found on the market with the aim of facilitating maintenance and the main point is the application of appropriate technology with to increasing economic value. The results of testing the tool with a robusta coffee sample of 2 kilograms obtained the conclusion that the temperature and roasting time affect the profile of coffee produced and the roasting process can reduce the moisture content of coffee beans produced to improve quality of coffee profile.

Extinguishing Characteristics of a Pool Fire with a Rubber Balloon Filled with Inert Gases

In this study, an extinguishing method using a rubber balloon filled with inert gas is proposed against fires in confined space such as spacecraft and space station. The proposed method has a possibility to increase extinguishing effectiveness of inert gas and decrease its volume amount needed for firefighting. In order to clarify the extinguishing characteristics, the blowoff experiments have been performed under normal gravity condition. CO2, N2, Ar and Ar + N2 mixture gases were used as an extinguishing gas and ethanol, 1-butanol and n-heptane were used to form a pool fire. The fuel pan diameters were varied from 47 mm to 94 mm. From the experimental results, it is found that there exists the extinguishment limit, which indicates the minimum inert gas volume needed for achieving flame extinguishment with the rubber balloon. By using the magnitude of the extinguishment limit value, the extinguishing ability of inert gas in the rubber balloon extinguishment can be evaluated. As a result, the effectiveness ranking of the inert gas in rubber balloon extinguishment agrees well with that of cup-burner tests. Moreover, it is found that when the size of the pool fire (fuel pan diameter) is same, the value of the lower heating value of fuel divided by the inert gas heat capacity at the extinguishment limit shows a certain constant value independent of inert gas and fuel species. As a result, the extinguishment limit of the rubber balloon extinguishing method is considered to be determined due to the balance between the heat release rate of the pool fire and the heat absorption rate of inert gas released from the bursting balloon. Thus, a rubber balloon can be used as an extinguishing capsule, by which a high concentration inert gas is easily delivered to the flame. In addition, it is much easier to grasp heat capacity effect of inert gas on flame extinguishment than the conventional methods, such as the cup-burner test.

Effect of pool fire scale of heavy fuel oil on the characteristics of PAH emissions

A series of pilot-scale pool test fires simulated an idealized fire accident in a storage tank containing low-sulfur No. 6 heavy fuel oil (LSFO6). This work demonstrates that the combustion characteristics of LSFO6 and shows that fire-related emission factors (EFs) of 16 USEPA PAHs during pool fires very much depend on the scale of oil pan diameter (D). Over the range studied (D = 20–60 cm), the combustion characteristics, (i) fuel mass loss rate, (ii) heat flux and (iii) ratio of CO/CO2 as time-weighted averages have positive linear relationships with D, but the combustion efficiency is a negative linear function of D. The sum of 16 PAH EFs has a negative linear function of D, while the overall vapor-particulate partitioning coefficient of 16 PAHs has a positive linear function of D. Most benzo(a)pyrene-toxic equivalents (BaPeq) for a given pool scale arise from high-molecular-weightPAHs. However, the maximum total BaPeq occurs at pool fire scale of D = 40 cm. The scale of burning causes no significant variation in PAH source identifications in terms of the defined molecular diagnostic ratios. Further researches on large-scale pool test fires are needed to validate whether the applicability of pilot-scale studies will be acceptable to the relevant oil tank fires in industries.

Interpretation on fire interaction mechanisms of multiple pool fires

This work intends to interpret the fire interaction mechanisms of multiple pool fires (MPF). A series of n-heptane and ethanol MPF tests with fuel pan diameters D of 0.2 m, 0.15 m, 0.05 m and different S/D (S: fire spacing) are performed. It is revealed that the air entrainment and convection of the center fire, and the leaning of the outer fire depend on the difference of the burning rates between the center and outer fires. Besides, it is indicated that the fire merging criterion depends on fuel type. For the typical fuels used in this work, compared to ethanol MPF, n-heptane MPF has a larger critical S/D attributed to its higher burning rate and flame height. The results also indicate that for MPF with no air entrainment restriction, the mass burning flux and heat feedbacks of the center fire monotonically increase with decreasing S/D. However, if air entrainment is restricted, the heat feedback rates and fractions non-monotonically depend on S/D. Furthermore, an under-ventilated burning phenomenon of MPF is found and illustrated as a result of air entrainment restriction. It is indicated that the under-ventilated burning induces the spill of excess unconsumed fuel vapors, influences the near-field radial velocity profile of MPF, and weakens the conduction heat feedback of the center fire. Finally, for the center fire of convection-dominated MPF, a modified mass burning flux correlation is derived based on the stagnant layer theory, which is verified to reasonably agree well with the experimental data.

Experimental study of liquid fuel boilover behavior in normal and low pressures

SummaryTo elucidate the effect of pressure on liquid fuel boilover, a series of field experiments were carried out using a portable measuring setup at Hefei (Alt.: 0 m, P: 101 kPa) and Lhasa (Alt.: 3650 m, P: 64 kPa). It is found that for a given size of pan, the boilover premonitory onset time tp and the boilover onset time tb are delayed; the intensity of boilover is weaker in low pressure. For a given pressure, tp and tb in larger pan are shorter. In addition, the boiling point of water is still the critical of boilover premonitory period in low pressure, and the critical temperature at the interface is reduced as pressure drops when boilover occurs. Then a prediction equation was made to explain the effect of atmospheric pressure on tp and tb, which proves that the pan diameter has a negative correlation against with tp and tb, and there is a negative correlation between the boilover premonitory onset time tp and the low pressure PL when PL &gt; 10 kPa.

Low air pressure effects on burning rates of ethanol and n-heptane pool fires under various feedback mechanisms of heat

The present work is a theoretical investigation into the influence of reduced air pressure on pool fire burning rate with different domination of heat feedback mechanisms. The coupling effects of pressure and heat feedback on burning rate or other typical parameters, e.g., flame temperature and flame height, were discussed within 3 regions under conduction-controlled, convection-controlled and radiation-controlled, respectively. A comprehensive correlation of pressure effects on burning rate with increasing pool fire scale was formulated based on radiation fire modeling and classical fire dynamics theory, which was validated well by the previous experimental data (carried out in ~65 kPa and ~100 kPa atmospheric pressures). It was interesting that the influence of pressure on flame height was able to be predicted by combining the theoretical correlation established and the classical flame height equation. Also, pressure effects on burning rate and flame height with increasing pan diameter showed a similar trend.