Pampeano Aquifer Research Articles

Impact of rainfed agriculture on spatio-temporal patterns of water balance and the interaction between groundwater and surface water in sub-humid plains

The expansion of rainfed agriculture, especially soybean cultivation in sub-humid plains, alters water balance and the exchange between groundwater-surface water (GW-SW). However, to date, there are no studies that analyze how these anthropic disturbances affect hydrological connectivity in these systems, especially the GW-SW interactions. The objective of this study is to analyze how the increase in rainfed agriculture affects the spatio-temporal patterns of the water balance and the GW-SW interaction. For this analysis, a coupled GW-SW flow model was implemented under land use and land cover (LULC) scenarios, to quantify the spatio-temporal dynamics for different components of water balance and GW-SW interactions for the upper creek basin of Del Azul. A simulation was carried out for a period of 13 years (2003–2015) on a daily scale and it was contrasted through three multitemporal LULC maps. The results point that substitution of natural pastures, the reduction of winter crops and the decrease of crop rotation, due to the increase of soybean monoculture in the basin under study, modifies the water balance, especially the annual rates of surface runoff and soil moisture which may increase between 3.5 and 9.4 % and between 1.4 and 4.4 % respectively, thus increasing the annual streamflows between 2.6 and 6.8 % and the groundwater heads between 0.2 and 0.6 m. This leads to changes in the hetereogeneity of the GW-SW interaction, a reduction between 0.3 and 3 % is observed in the discharge from the Pampeano aquifer to the Del Azul stream, while the recharge rates from the Del Azul stream to the Pampeano aquifer increase between 2 and 17.8 %. The application of the SWAT-MODFLOW model under LULC scenarios, improves the prediction of the regional hydrologic connectivity on sub-humid plains, because the hydrological processes occurring in the surface and non-saturated zone are governed by shallow groundwater dynamics.

Uso de herramientas hidroquímicas e isotópicas para evaluar el rol del agua subterránea en el funcionamiento hidrológico de una laguna Pampeana, provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Waters from the fractured-karstic and detritic (Pampeano) aquifers, and from surface water bodies are closely interacting in the Tapalqué Creek Upper Basin (CSAT for its acronym in Spanish), southeast of the Chaco-Pampean plain, Argentina. The La Barrancosa lake, endorheic and of socio-economic and cultural relevance, is located in this basin headwater. Within the framework of an integrated vision of these water resources, the main objective of this work is to know this lake’s water origin, as well as to identify and explain the processes involved in its interaction with the Pampeano aquifer. Hydrochemical and isotopic (δ2H and δ18O) tools were jointly used, with special emphasis on the ionic ratios study and the hydrochemical modelling. The rainwater evaporation during infiltration into aquifers and the dissolution/weathering of the geological materials rich in Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+ present in the study area, are the main processes that determine the composition of waters in the recharge zones. The dissolution of Na+-rich minerals and the cationic exchange are of relevance toward the plain zone. This last process and the concentration by evaporation control the composition of the La Barrancosa lake waters (effluent). These conclusions are validated by the δ2H, δ18O and d values characteristic of the CSAT waters and can be extrapolated to other basins developed in similar environments.

Factors affecting the radon (222Rn) emanation from aquifer rock materials: Implications for radiological and groundwater tracer studies

Groundwater discharge (GD) is an important component of the water budget in large urban areas with high water demands. Radon is a routinely used groundwater tracer in mass-balances for evaluating GD to surface water bodies. The diffusion of 222Rn from aquifers' sediments parameter is important for GD's assessments. Sediment equilibration experiments were employed with various sediment and rock materials, including sand, granite, gneiss and loess that constitute the Pampeano Aquifer (PA) in the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. These experiments allowed the 222Rn concentration determination in pore fluids at secular equilibrium and to examine the factors affecting the magnitude of radon 222Rn emanation from the materials under study. We found that radon emanation decreases in a power function (R2 = 0.9, n = 6) with the particle size of the tested PA sediment and rock materials. Based on our results, loess sediments with the smallest particle size and the largest particle surface area have the highest radon emanation. This strongly suggests that these two parameters are the parameters that govern the radon diffusive fluxes' magnitude in the PA. On the other hand, we found that PA basement rocks, primarily granite and gneiss, showed an exhalation rate of radon of 8.1 ± 0.81 Bq∙m−2∙h−1 and 13.2 ± 1.32 Bq∙m−2∙h−1. These rates are two orders of magnitude higher than loess sediments (0.3 ± 0.1 Bq∙m−2∙h−1), owning to the higher natural content of radon's parent isotopes from the 238U natural decay series. These high radon levels are consistent with currently available radon concentrations measured in groundwater in contact with the PA basement rock formations. This study demonstrates the importance of considering site-specific aquifer properties in the radon diffusive fluxes when utilizing radon as a groundwater tracer in hydrological studies. This is the first quantitative study that examines the aquifer characteristics affecting radon emanations in this large hydrogeological system.

Multi-isotope (δ 2H, δ 18O, δ 13C-TDIC, δ 18O-TDIC, 87Sr/86Sr) and hydrochemical study on fractured-karstic and detritic shallow aquifers in the Pampean region, Argentina

ABSTRACT Fluxes between fractured-karstified and detritic aquifers are commonly poorly understood in many environments. These two types of aquifers are in contact in the southeastern Pampean region in the Argentine Buenos Aires province, and the aim of this work is to analyze their relationship contributing to improve the hydrological model. A joint application of hydrochemical and multi-isotope (δ 2H, δ 18O, δ 13C-TDIC, δ 18O-TDIC, 87Sr/86Sr) tools was used. TDIC, δ 2H, δ 18O and δ 13C-TDIC allowed differentiating two main end members. Water in the Pampeano aquifer (PA) which is transferred from the fractured-karstic aquifer (F-KA) is characterised by high TDIC around 500–700 mg/L, isotopically depleted in 18O (about −5.5 ‰) and high δ 13C-TDIC (around −10.0 ‰). The other end member is direct recharge water infiltrated into the PA with TDIC ranging from 400 to 500 mg/L, slightly enriched in 18O (δ 18O = −4.8 ‰), and δ 13C-TDIC in the range of soil CO2 as a result of reactions with calcrete concretions (from −20.0 to −9.0 ‰). Dolomite dissolution is the main process controlling the chemistry of the low-mineralized (Mg–Ca-HCO3) waters, whereas high-mineralized (Na-HCO3) waters are strongly influenced by ion-exchange reactions with adsorbed Ca2+ and Mg2+ and by evaporation.

Estimating the specific yield of the Pampeano aquifer, Argentina, using superconducting gravimeter data

Specific yield is a key parameter for the sustainable management of unconfined aquifers, since it relates water-table fluctuations to aquifer storage-changes and thus impacts water supply. However, estimating specific yield is still a challenge due to theoretical and methodological limitations. Water-storage changes in the aquifer and in the overlying unsaturated soil profile cause local changes in gravity that can be recorded by high-precision superconducting gravimeters. In this work, a novel methodology to estimate specific yield from superconducting gravimeter data is presented. The proposed methodology is based on a hydrogravimetric model that estimates the gravity response due to the loss and gain of water mass in the soil profile using rainfall, water-table and air-temperature data. The model is applied to a study site of the Pampeano aquifer in Argentina where a continuous 1-year record of superconducting gravimeter measurements is available. The specific yield value obtained using this methodology is 0.11 ± 0.039, which is validated by means of a long-term pumping test performed at the study site. The proposed method constitutes a promising alternative to the available tools for estimating specific yield, by taking advantage of superconducting gravity data.

Geological basement control on 222Rn accumulation as an input function for hydrogeological systems on a loess aquifer, Argentina

The activity of 222Rn of the groundwater was measured in different wells in the Pampeano aquifer in southeastern Buenos Aires to assess how the hydrogeological characteristics of the study area, which involves type and depth of the bedrock, aquifer mineralogy and residence time along flowpaths, influences on 222Rn contents. Water samples, as well as sediment samples, were collected in multilevel piezometers in different sites of the Buenos Aires province for the determination of stable isotopes, 222Rn concentrations and mineralogical analyses. The identification of uranium-bearing minerals in the loess sediments of the Pampeano aquifer was carried out with a scanning electron microscope allowing identifying zircon and monazite. The 222Rn was determined with a RAD7 detector, showing a range of activities from 3.1 to 14.9 Bq/L. The results showed a relation between the 222Rn activity, the depth of the wells, and the proximity of the Precambrian basement. The activity of 222Rn increases linearly with increasing depth at a rate of 0.09 Bq·L−1·m−1. However, at the same depth the concentration of 222Rn in wells near the Precambrian basement showed to be three times higher than the concentrations in the wells that have a Paleozoic bedrock, clearly showing that the proximity of granitoids rocks results in higher concentrations of radon.

A biological and nitrate isotopic assessment framework to understand eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.

Eutrophication is a globally significant challenge facing aquatic ecosystems, mostly associated with human induced enrichment of these ecosystems with nitrogen and phosphorus. Given the complexity of assigning eutrophication issues to local primary N sources in field-based studies, this paper proposes a multi-stable isotope and biological framework to track nitrogen biogeochemical transformations, inputs and fate of nitrate in groundwater-dependent shallow lakes. Three representative freshwater ecosystems from the Pampa Plain (Argentina), with different land uses and topographic features were selected. Groundwater (N=24), lake (N=29) and stream (N=20) samples were collected for isotope (δ15N-NO3- and δ18O-NO3-, δ18O-H2O) and hydrogeochemical (major ions and nutrients) determinations, and in the case of surface water, also for biological determinations (chlorophyll-a, fecal coliforms and nitrifying bacteria abundance). Both chemical and isotopic characteristics clearly indicated that denitrification was limited in lakes and streams, while evidence of assimilation in shallow lakes was confirmed. The results suggested that groundwater denitrification plays a role in the nitrate concentration pattern observed in the Pampeano Aquifer. The proportional contribution of nitrate sources to the inflow streams for all years were estimated by using Bayesian isotope mixing models, being ammonium nitrified in the system from soil and fertilizers ~50 - 75 %, sewage/manure ~20 - 40 % and atmospheric deposition ~5 - 15 %. In this sense, agricultural practices seem to have a relevant role in the eutrophication and water quality deterioration for these watersheds. However, limnological, bacterial and algal variables, assessed simultaneously with isotopic tracers, indicated spatio-temporal differences within and between these aquatic ecosystems. In the case of Nahuel Rucá Lake, animal manure was a significant source of nitrogen pollution, in contrast to La Brava Lake. In Los Padres Lake, agricultural practices were considered the main sources of nitrate input to the ecosystem.

Distribución espacial de propiedades químicas del agua subterránea en la ciudad de Pergamino, provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina

El objetivo general del trabajo es caracterizar la distribución espacial de las concentraciones de nitratos, sulfatos, fluoruros y arsénico total en las aguas del acuífero Pampeano de la ciudad de Pergamino, el único medio de aprovisionamiento de agua de la ciudad. Los datos fueron obtenidos por Obras Sanitarias de Pergamino y corresponden al promedio de las concentraciones de los iones en el agua de 53 pozos muestreados bimestralmente en el periodo 2006-2014. Se utilizaron métodos geoestadísticos para analizar el análisis. La distribución espacial de las concentraciones de sulfato, si bien no supera en ningún pozo los valores recomendados por la normativa provincial, son menores en el noroeste, fuera del área urbana (40 mg/l) y gradualmente aumentan y alcanzan los valores mayores en el centro y en el suroeste de la ciudad, próximos al Arroyo Pergamino (120 mg/l). Dos hipótesis no excluyentes explicarían este fenómeno: mezcla de aguas por ascenso vertical desde el acuífero Puelche y/o infiltración de aguas del arroyo a través de pozos con encamisado deficiente. La distribución de nitratos muestra en el centro de la ciudad las concentraciones más altas, con 18 pozos que exceden los límites admisibles (más de 100 mg/l), los tenores disminuyen gradualmente hacia la periferia; los altos valores en la ciudad podrían atribuirse a filtraciones de las cañerías de las cloacas cuya antigüedad es de casi 100 años. Existen 27 pozos que sobrepasan los límites permitidos con fluoruros, estos se ubican en el suroeste y en el norte (máximos 1,6 mg/l y 1,3 mg/l respectivamente), hacia el centro de la ciudad tenores disminuyen hasta alcanzar los límites permitidos. Cinco pozos tienen concentraciones de arsénico total mayor a lo normado, se encuentran en el sector suroeste y en el noreste de la ciudad (0,055 mg/l). El patrón espacial de fluoruros y arsénico podría vincularse con la presencia de vidrio volcánico presente en sedimentos y con la forma del acuífero que presenta lentes.

Assessment of Organochlorine Pesticides in Phreatic Aquifer of Pampean Region, Argentina.

This work evaluates the factors affecting the presence of organochlorine pesticides in Pampeano aquifer in the Quequén Grande River watershed, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Eighteen sampling sites were selected in order to have representatives of different type of wells and types of soil. Among the analyzed compounds, endosulfan showed the highest concentrations (4.75ng l- 1 mean), which could be related to use in the recent past. Others important pesticides groups detected were HCHs (1.1ng l- 1 mean) and heptachlors (2.17ng l- 1mean). The analysis of the results show that the thickness of the unsaturated zone is the main factor related to the concentrations of pesticides and there were no differences according to wells or soil types. Although agricultural use of most OCPs has been banned in Argentina from more than 30years ago, their residues are still detected in groundwater of the region, indicating their high persistence.

Stable isotope hydrology in fractured and detritic aquifers at both sides of the South Atlantic Ocean: Mar del Plata (Argentina) and the Rawsonville and Sandspruit river catchment areas (South Africa)

The aim of this work is to characterize the isotope composition of water (2H and 18O) in order to establish the relationship between fractured and detritic aquifers in similar hydrological environments located at both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Mar del Plata zone, placed in the Argentine Buenos Aires province in South America, and the Rawsonville and Sandspruit river catchment areas, situated in the Western Cape province in South Africa were compared. Rainwater and groundwater samples from fractured and detritic aquifers were analyzed through laser spectroscopy. In both Argentina and South African study sites, stable isotopes data demonstrate an aquifers recharge source from rainfall. For the Mar del Plata region, two different groups of detritic aquifer's samples with distinct recharge processes can be identified due to the close relationship existing between the present hydrogeological environments, the aquifer's grain size sediments and the isotopes contents: one representing rapid infiltration in aquifer sediments of the creeks' palaeobeds and hills zones (sandy or silt sandy sediments) and the other with slow infiltration of evaporated water in plain zones with an aquitard behavior. In the last group, the evaporation process occurs previous infiltration or in the aquifer's non-saturated zone, because of the existence of very low topographic gradients and fine-grained sediments. The evaporation phenomenon is not evident in the Sandspruit river catchment site's detritic aquifer, because its sandy composition allows a faster infiltration rate than in the loess that compounds the Pampeano aquifer in the interfluves zones of the Argentinian study area.

Kinetics of dissolution processes in loess-like sediments and carbonate concretions in the southeast of the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina

The Pampeano aquifer formed by loess-like sediments provides water to cities and for agricultural uses in the Pampean plain, which is the most productive area in Argentina. Studies on the mechanisms through which this groundwater acquires its chemical composition are scarce and generally make assumption about equilibrium conditions. Few works on total sediments kinetics of mineral dissolution have been made. The main objective is to characterize ions incorporation to the groundwater of the Pampeano aquifer and to estimate the rate of the dissolution of the solid phase of the Pampeano sediments. This work also aims to provide evidence on the effect of particles size on water chemistry, and the changes in mineral structure during dissolution. The methodology included batch experiments on loess and calcrete during 10 h. The kinetics of ions incorporation into water presented variations depending on the types of sediments dissolving and the sizes of particles. Steady values were reached in the first minutes of reaction. Although the principal components of the Pampeano aquifer like calcite, quartz and aluminosilicates are known to have low dissolution coefficient, ions were incorporated fastly into water and saturation of solution appeared in the first minutes of the experiments. Saturation index (SI) calculated by PHREEQC also showed sensitivity to particles size. Observations with loupe and microscope showed modifications on the sediments appearance after batch reactions. For instance, porosity in calcrete increased. Increments in BET (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller) surface area and micropore surface area were measured. Significant changes in sediment chemistry measured by SEM/EDS were observed as well during dissolution processes.

Assessment of processes controlling the regional distribution of fluoride and arsenic in groundwater of the Pampeano Aquifer in the Del Azul Creek basin (Argentina)

Groundwater in the upper 50m of the Pampeano Aquifer in the Del Azul Creek basin (Argentina) has F and As contents above the WHO safe drinking levels. This basin is situated to the SE of the Chaco-Pampean plain, in Buenos Aires Province. The Pampeano Aquifer is a major water source for all uses. The aim of the study is to assess the primary processes controlling the regional distribution of F and As in the most exploited part of the aquifer. The study involved sampling for chemical and isotopic analyses, interpretation of data with different methods (diagrams, bivariate analyses, mineral saturation states, Principal Component Analysis) and deduction of leading processes. Information about aquifer mineralogy and hydrogeochemical processes involved in F and As solubilization in the aquifer has been taken from previous works of the same and other authors. Groundwater salinity increases to the NE, in the direction of the regional groundwater flow. Chemical types evolve from Ca/Mg-HCO3 in the upper part of the basin, to Na-HCO3 in the middle part and to Na-ClSO4 and Na-Cl in the lower part. The regional distribution of F is controlled by hydrogeochemical processes. The distribution of As is controlled by two types of processes dominating in different areas: hydrogeochemical controls prevail in the low to moderately mineralized groundwater of the middle and lower parts of the basin; hydrogeological controls lead to the NE of the lower basin and beyond it. In the last zone there are abundant lagoons and seasonal flooding is frequent, making evapoconcentration an important process for groundwater mineralization. The main hydrogeochemical processes involved in both F and As distribution are cation exchange, with Na release and Ca uptake, carbonate dissolution and pH increase. Arsenic release induced by redox processes may play to the NE, but its results would be masked by the effect of evaporation.

Mobility of Heavy Metals (Pb, Cd, Zn) in the Pampeano and Puelche Aquifers, Argentina: Partition and Retardation Coefficients.

The prediction about metals behaviour in soil requires knowledge on their solid-liquid partitioning. Usually it is expressed with an empirical distribution coefficient or Kd, which gives the ratio of the metal concentration in the solid phase to that in the solution. Kd values have been determined for Zn, Pb and Cd from samples representing the two most exploited aquifers in Argentina, Pampeano and Puelche, at three different locations in the province of Buenos Aires. The Pampeano aquifer presented higher Kd values than the Puelche aquifer. Comparing Kd values, different relationships could be observed: (a) Pampeano aquifer: Pb > Zn > Cd, and (b) Puelche aquifer: Pb > Cd > Zn. Kd for Cd seems to be linked to cationic exchange capacity, but solid phases precipitation can be more determining for Pb and Zn.

The origin of groundwater composition in the Pampeano Aquifer underlying the Del Azul Creek basin, Argentina

The Pampean plain is the most productive region in Argentina. The Pampeano Aquifer beneath the Pampean plain is used mostly for drinking water. The study area is the sector of the Pampeano Aquifer underlying the Del Azul Creek basin, in Buenos Aires province. The main objective is to characterize the chemical and isotopic compositions of groundwater and their origin on a regional scale. The methodology used involved the identification and characterization of potential sources of solutes, the study of rain water and groundwater chemical and isotopic characteristics to deduce processes, the development of a hydrogeochemical conceptual model, and its validation by hydrogeochemical modelling with PHREEQC. Groundwater samples come mostly from a two-depth monitoring network of the “Dr. Eduardo J. Usunoff” Large Plains Hydrology Institute (IHLLA). Groundwater salinity increases from SW to NE, where groundwater is saline. In the upper basin groundwater is of the HCO3-Ca type, in the middle basin it is HCO3-Na, and in the lower basin it is ClSO4–NaCa and Cl–Na. The main processes incorporating solutes to groundwater during recharge in the upper basin are rain water evaporation, dissolution of CO2, calcite, dolomite, silica, and anorthite; cationic exchange with Na release and Ca and Mg uptake, and clay precipitation. The main processes modifying groundwater chemistry along horizontal flow at 30m depth from the upper to the lower basin are cationic exchange, dissolution of silica and anorthite, and clay precipitation. The origin of salinity in the middle and lower basin is secular evaporation in a naturally endorheic area. In the upper and middle basins there is agricultural pollution. In the lower basin the main pollution source is human liquid and solid wastes. Vertical infiltration through the boreholes annular space during the yearly flooding stages is probably the pollution mechanism of the samples at 30m depth.

Spatial distribution of groundwater salinity at Pergamino: arrecifes zone (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina)

The application of irrigation at the NE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, demands the knowledge of groundwater features, in particular salinity, in order to avoid unsuccessful drillings and to prevent from deterioration of soils. Some previous large scale studies have shown the presence of salty groundwater at different depths at close sites, and well information is scarce. The scope of this work is to determine the depth and thickness of the aquifers of the zone and to obtain the spatial distribution of groundwater salinity. Vertical Electrical Soundings were performed and the continuity of the aquifers was analyzed along four transects integrating previous results. Geostatistical methodology was used to obtain the spatial variability of electrical resistivity of the Pampeano aquifer, which increases to the east. This analysis was also performed to determine the depth of the fresh-salty water interface which deepens at the left margin of Pergamino river and to the SE direction.A transition zone was found, at SE of the study area, west of Arrecifes city, where the fresh salty water interface and the water table level deepens abruptly.

Determination of Zn partition coefficient and simulation of reactive transport from landfills in Mar Del Plata, Argentina

The distribution coefficient (Kd) expresses the relationship between the concentration of an element, which is adsorbed in the solid surface and its remaining concentration in the solution. The Kd is a very important factor in reactive transport, representing the source/sink term, and explaining the difference between the velocity of transport of non-conservative elements (Kd>0) and water flow velocity. In this paper, the Kd value for Zn element in loess like sediments forming the Pampeano aquifer is determined and this value is used in the modeling of reactive transport from the landfill of the city of Mar del Plata (Argentina). The determination of Kd value was done by means of batch experiments. The results obtained showed good agreement with Freundlich isotherm, with a value of KF=300.95 ml g−1 and a super index value b of 0.3961. These values were applied to reactive transport modeling using Visual Modflow code. The Zn plume obtained showed the low mobility of the element in the oxidizing conditions of the environment.

GEOFÍSICA APLICADA A LA EVALUACIÓN DE LA VULNERABILIDAD A LA CONTAMINACIÓN EN ZONAS RURALES

Agricultural and cattle activities are considered to be the source of high risk of contamination of groundwater. The contamination is the result of the interaction between the contaminant charge and the aquifer vulnerability. The aim of this work was to evaluate the vulnerability of the Pampeano aquifer at some rural zones of the highly productive area of Pergamino-Arrecifes river basin. The traditional method of indexation was used taking into account the principal factors which influence: the depth of free groundwater level, the degree of confinement of the aquifer and the lithology of non saturated zone. The first one was obtained through geoelectrical prospecting, due to the lack of well information at some places. The last factors were estimated based on hidrogeological features known from some wells. The influence of the edaphic zone (soil) was incorporated as a new index by means of texture properties of soils sampled at each site and soil maps. Even if vulnerability was moderate for all the studied sites, some places along both margins of the Pergamino river had higher indexes than the surroundings of Arrecifes town. The small urban centers had greater risk of contamination of groundwater due to their intrinsic vulnerability (higher indexes) and the potential contaminant charge that intensive agricultural and cattle activities, which are developed around these sites, may generate. Higher values of nitrate concentrations were found at these places with a sharp increasing tendency during the last years, indicating the need of stronger control over the effect of these activities on groundwater contamination.&nbsp

Hydrogeological sections of the Pergamino basin (Buenos Aires province, Argentina): audio magnetotelluric and geochemical results

Aquifers in the northeastern zone of the Buenos Aires Province, mainly used for agricultural purposes, were studied regionally by several authors, but local studies are necessary because great variations may occur in different basins, and well data are limited. In this work, geophysical exploration by means of Audio-magnetotelluric soundings and geochemical analyses of some well data were carried out at the Pergamino rivulet basin. Depth and thicknesses of the upper hydrogeological section, the Epiparaniana, including the Pampeano and Puelches aquifers, were determined. Also, the hydro chemical evolution along the direction of regional groundwater flow was studied. The depth of the very conductive layer corresponding to the salty Puelches and the "Green Miocene", limiting the agricultural water usage, came out to be very variable depending on the zone. Geochemical analyses showed that the Pampeano aquifer has bicarbonate sodium water, with an increase of electrical conductivity, sodium and bicarbonates contents at a local recharge zone with impermeable and bad drainage soils and a topographical small slope.