Palm-pressed Fiber Oil Research Articles

Effects of substitution of crude palm oil with palm-pressed fibre oil on the laying hen's performance, egg production and egg quality traits.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of substituting a crude palm oil (CPO) diet with palm-pressed fibre oil (PPFO) on laying hens' performance, egg production, carcass characteristic and egg quality. A total of 150 Hisex Brown laying hens were randomly assigned to five treatments: a basal diet containing 4% CPO (T1-control) and basal diets in which CPO was substituted by 25% (T2), 50% (T3), 75% (T4) or 100% (T5) PPFO. These diets were fed to laying hens ad libitum for 16 weeks. Compared to the T1 diet, dietary treatments T2, T3 and T4 had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the feed intake, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, egg number, egg production, egg weight and egg mass of the laying hens during the entire experimental period. Nonetheless, a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in feed intake, egg number, egg production and egg mass were observed in hens fed T5 compared to those fed the T1 (control) diet. Except for heart and spleen weights, other carcass characteristics were not affected by treatment (P < 0.05). Skin yellowness and breast meat redness increased significantly (linearly, P < 0.05) with increasing proportions of PPFO. Likewise, yolk colour scores increased in proportion to the dietary level of PPFO (linearly, P < 0.05). These findings suggest that PPFO can be used as a novel, cost-effective lipid source at a level of 3% in layer diets as a substitute for CPO to improve eggs' quality parameters without any harmful effects on laying performance.

Topical Nanoemulsion Hydrogel Formulated from Supercritical Fluid Extracted Palm-Pressed Fiber Oil and Virgin Coconut Oil with Antioxidant and Antibacterial Effects.

Skincare industries are growing rapidly around the globe but most products are formulated using synthetic chemicals and organic solvent extracted plant extracts, thus may be hazardous to the users and incur higher cost for purification that eventually leads to phytonutrient degradation. Therefore, this study aimed to formulate a stable natural formulation with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities by using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO 2 ) extracted palm-pressed fiber oil (PPFO) as an active ingredient with virgin coconut oil (VCO) as a formulation base. PPFO was extracted from fresh palm-pressed fiber (PPF) while VCO was from dried grated coconut copra using SC-CO 2 before being subjected to the analyses of physicochemical properties, phytonutrient content and biological activities including antioxidant and antimicrobial. The nanoemulgel formulations were then developed and examined for their stability through accelerated stability study for 3 months by measuring their pH, particle size, polydispersity index and zeta potential. The results showed that PPFO contained a high amount of phytonutrients, especially total carotenoid (1497 ppm) and total tocopherol and tocotrienol (2269 ppm) contents. The newly developed nanoemulgels maintained their particles in nano size and showed good stability with high negative zeta potentials. Sample nanoemulgel formulated with 3% PPFO diluted in VCO as effective concentration showed significantly stronger antioxidant activity than the control which was formulated from 3% tocopheryl acetate diluted in mineral oil, towards DPPH and ABTS radicals, with IC 50 values of 67.41 and 44.28 µL/mL, respectively. For the antibacterial activities, the sample nanoemulgel was found to inhibit Gram positive bacteria S. aureus and S. epidermidis growth but not the Gram negative strain E. coli. Overall, this study revealed the potential of SF-extracted PPFO as an active ingredient in the antioxidant topical formulations thus future study on in vitro skin cell models is highly recommended for validation.

Effects of Dietary Oil Palm Carotenes on Colour Intensity and Astaxanthin Content in Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

Prawns have the metabolic ability to convert dietary carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, into astaxanthin, which increases the colour intensity and boosts immunity, thereby improving prawn growth performance. Currently, prawn feed manufacturers are using expensive synthetic astaxanthin as a feed supplement, which leads to higher feed costs. Oil palm carotene can be used in prawn feed production to replace the commercial synthetic astaxanthin in the market. A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary oil palm carotene on the colour intensity, total carotenoids, and astaxanthin content of giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Five different treatments that are isonitrogenous and isocaloric were used in this study, including T1 (commercial feed); T2 (control, without oil palm carotene); T3 (3% crude palm oil (CPO) inclusion); T4 (3% palm pressed fibre oil (PPFO) inclusion); and T5 (3% commercial oil palm-mixed carotene inclusion). Prawns were fed to satiation five times daily during the 10-week feeding trial. At the end of the feeding trial, prawn samples were collected for colour intensity, total carotenoids, and astaxanthin content analysis. The T4 and T5 prawn samples showed better colour intensity in terms of lightness in cooked samples as well as yellowness and redness for both raw and cooked samples. Prawns fed with diets consisting of oil palm carotenes (T3, T4 &amp; T5) contained higher total carotenoids content (more than 40 ppm) and astaxanthin content (ranging from 14.65 to 16.96 ppm) than the commercial (T1) and control (T2) groups. These results indicate that supplementation of oil palm carotenes in the giant freshwater prawn can potentially replace expensive commercial synthetic astaxanthin that is practically used by aquaculture feed producers.

Recent development and challenges in extraction of phytonutrients from palm oil.

Phytonutrients are plant-derived bioactives which are widely utilized as colorants or supplements in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products. To meet the global demand for phytonutrients, oil palm has emerged as a promising source of phytonutrients on account of its large-scale plantation worldwide and high oil productivity. Phytonutrients including carotenoids, tocols, sterols, squalene, phospholipids, coenzyme Q10, and polyphenols can be found in crude palm oil as well as in the byproducts (e.g. palm oil mill effluent and palm-pressed fiber oil) generated from the palm oil milling process. However, the high viscosity and semisolid properties of palm oil are problematic in phytonutrient extraction. Another major challenge is the retention of the sensitive phytonutrients during the extraction process. Over the years, the advances in the extraction methods have improved the extractability of phytonutrients. The emerging extraction methods can operate under mild conditions to mitigate the risk of phytonutrient degradation. This review outlines the types of phytonutrient in palm oil and their extraction strategies. The working principles and operating conditions of extraction methods are discussed along with their potential and limitations in terms of extraction efficiency and practicability. The methods for pretreatment of feedstocks for improving extraction efficiency are also highlighted. The challenges in the extraction of phytonutrient from palm oil feedstock are summarized. Lastly, we provide suggestions for overcoming the limitations and improving the performances of phytonutrient extraction.

Production of refined red palm-pressed fibre oil from physical refining pilot plant

Palm-pressed fiber oil (PPFO) is unique as it contains higher amount of carotenoids, vitamin E (tocotrienols & tocopherols) and other phytonutrients (squalene and sterols) as compared to crude palm oil (CPO). However, crude PPFO has high phosphorus content and free fatty acid (FFA) and at the same time low in deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) that requires specific refining steps for achieving a good quality oil properties. The physical refining pilot plant scale was developed, involved a combination of step including wet and acid degumming and bleaching followed by high vacuum deacidification. The optimum refining conditions comprises wet degumming using 5.0 ​wt/wt% of distilled water at 90 ​°C for 20 ​min, acid degumming using 0.5 ​wt% of phosphoric acid at 90 ​°C for 10 ​min, bleaching using 1.0 ​wt% of natural bleaching earth at 105 ​°C for 20 ​min, and deacidification at 160 ​°C and 0.001 ​mmHg. A significant reduction of phosphorus content of 97% (from 633 ​± ​83 ​ppm to 11 ​± ​2 ​ppm) and FFA of 91% (from 5.30 ​± ​0.19% to 0.35 ​± ​0.09%) were achieved in the pilot scale study. The DOBI value of refined red PPFO improved from 2.02 ​± ​0.18 to 2.68 ​± ​0.04. Besides, the carotenoids (986 ​± ​55 ​ppm) and vitamin E (1075 ​± ​64 ​ppm) in refined red PPFO were preserved by applying the mild temperature of deacidification. The pilot scale results establish a significant contribution to the feasibility of the refined red palm-pressed oil.

Extraction of carotenoid-rich palm pressed fiber oil using mixtures of hydrocarbons and short chain alcohols.

Solvent extraction is the most efficient method for recovering residual oil from palm pressed fiber (PPFO), which may contain up to eight times the carotenoid content of that found in crude palm oil. The objective of the present study is the use of binary mixtures of hydrocarbons (HC), hexane (Hex), cyclohexane (CHex) or heptane (Hep), and alcohols (ALC), ethanol (Eth) or isopropanol (IPA), in order to promote the highest recovery of a carotenoid-rich PPFO, in which the compositions of the mixtures are defined based on the calculation of solute-solvent distance (Ra) considering β-carotene as the solute. The extraction experiments were conducted in batch, at 60±2°C, or in a fixed-bed packed column, at 55±3°C. Hex and Hep:IPA provided 80% of batch PPFO extraction yield, while in column, the highest yields were obtained with Eth and Hex:IPA (66%). The total carotenoid content obtained was the same independent of the solvent and extraction configuration (from 1790±230 up to 2539±78mg β-carotene/kg PPFO). In terms of the carotenoid profile, β-carotene was mostly extracted by Hex, Hex:Eth stood out in the extraction of α-carotene, and Eth extracted the highest content of lycopene. It is possible to infer that mixtures of HC and ALC with compositions defined based on Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSPs) demonstrated good ability to extract carotenoid-rich PPFO, maintaining their relatively stable fatty acids composition and free acidity, showing that partial substitution of HC by ALC is technically possible.

Refining process for production of refined palm-pressed fibre oil

Palm-pressed fibre oil (PPFO) is rich in natural phytonutrients such as carotenes and tocotrienols (vitamin E), which makes it worth further development to enhance its quality. Crude PPFO is currently extracted using solvents without further refining. This study aimed to refine crude PPFO using a combination of processes including degumming, bleaching, and deacidification. Various doses of hot distilled water at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 v/v% were applied during water degumming to remove soluble and hydratable gummy materials in crude PPFO. Degumming with acids at doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were tested to obtain oil with low phosphorus content. Bleaching earth doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were used to absorb trace metals and other impurities. The bleached PPFO was subjected to deacidification to remove free fatty acid (FFA). The optimum refining conditions were using 5.0 v/v% of hot distilled water at 90 °C for 20 min for water degumming, 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid at 90 °C for 10 min for acid degumming, 0.1 wt% of natural bleaching earth at 105 °C for 15 min during bleaching, and deacidification at 110 °C at 0.1 mtorr. The refined PPFO (RPPFO) showed a 98% reduction of phosphorus content (from 565 ppm to 13±2 ppm) and FFA removal of 97% (from 5.94% to 0.15%), while deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) increased by 44% (from 1.99 to 2.87±0.17). In addition, RPPFO was rich in carotenoids (1208±23 ppm) and vitamin E (904±8 ppm) that can be developed into high value products. The RPPFO meets the quality specifications of refined, bleached, and deodorised palm oil (RBDPO) while maintaining the heat-sensitive phytonutrients.

Design of alternate solvent for recovery of residual palm oil: simultaneous optimization of process performance with environmental, health and safety aspects

In this work, a computer-aided molecular design (CAMD)-based approach has been developed to design alternative solvents for extracting palm oil from palm pressed fibre (PPF). PPF is a by-product from palm oil milling process produced during the extraction of crude palm oil from fresh fruit bunches. It is noted that the oil that found in PPF consists of high concentration of carotenoids; therefore, palm oil industries are trying to recover the residual oil in PPF. Hexane is conventionally used as a solvent to extract PPF. However, hexane has high boiling point which leads to significant degradation of carotene during solvent recovery. Besides, hexane is considered as a toxic chemical; thus, the extracted oil cannot be used in food applications. In order to overcome the limitations of hexane, this work presents a systematic approach to generate alternative solvents with desirable attributes for PPF oil extraction via CAMD with the integration of safety and health aspects. In this work, diffusivity is defined as a key parameter to evaluate the solvent functionality because the solvent must diffuse through the fibrous matrix to solubilize trapped oil. The safety and health aspects were assessed by implementing disjunctive programming to discretize the properties for allocation of subindex scores. The developed algorithm can trade-off the process and environmental, health and safety (EHS) performances and identify alternative solvents which improve EHS performance compare with hexane.

An Experimental Investigation of Palm Pressed Fibre Waste as Lubricant in Strip Drawing

The abundance of palm pressed fibre (PPF) biomass waste generates greenhouse gases. Therefore, an experimental study on catalytic pyrolysis technology using a tubular reactor on PPF oil was performed at temperature of 450 oC, which gave oil product yields of 44.1 percent. Viscosity of the PPF oil as a function of temperature was measured at different temperatures ranging from 25 oC to 50 oC. The viscosity of the oils was shown to decrease with increases in temperature. Finally, PPF oil was tested as lubricant in strip drawing and compared with palm olein (PO). A comparison of strip drawn aluminium samples show that the lubrication performance of PPF oil varies with PO in a remarkably similar way.

Properties of Palm Pressed Fibre for Metal Forming Lubricant Applications

During the last few years, special attention has been paid to the protection of the environment from pollution caused by lubricants. Green lubricants are in demand for many industrial activities. Present work focuses on palm pressed fibre (PPF), which is the biomass waste generated during the production of palm oil. It has a great potential source of lubricant by producing the PPF oil by pyrolysis. As the availability of PPF is abundant and the PPF waste generates greenhouse gases, the present investigation aims at pyrolysis experiments and evaluating the yield and functional properties of the oil produced. Experimental studies on catalytic pyrolysis technology using a tubular reactor on PPF oil was performed at temperature of 450°C, which gave oil product yields of 44.1 percent. Viscosity of the PPF oil as a function of temperature was measured at different temperatures ranging from 25°C to 50°C. The result showed that the viscosity of the oils decreases remarkably with increases in temperature. Finally, the PPF oil obtained from the pyrolysis process was tested as a lubricant and compared with palm olein (PO) in cold work drawing process. The findings revealed that PPF can perform as effectively as existing lubricants like PO in metal forming process.

Extraction and Identification of Water-Soluble Compounds in Palm-Pressed Fiber by SC-CO2 and GC-MS

The residual oil recovered from palm-pressed fiber is known to contain high level of carotenes (4,000 mg kgˉ1 to 6,000 mg kgˉ1) and vitamin E such as tocopherols and tocotrienols (2,000 mg kgˉ1 to 3,000 mg kgˉ1). In this study, the water-soluble compounds in fresh palm-pressed fiber were recovered by supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction. The concentration of these compounds in palm-pressed fiber oil recovered was determined in the range of 1,000 mg kgˉ1 to 2,000 mg kgˉ1. A total of 12 compounds have been identified from this water-soluble extract with molecular weights ranging from 126 amu. to 208 amu.. Preliminary results showed that these water-soluble compounds possess superior antioxidant properties screening using FRAP (Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma) and TEAC (Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity) assays.