Palm Oil Samples Research Articles

Evaluation of the Concentration of Some Toxic Metals in Dietary Red Palm Oil

Palm oil has been part of human diet for more than 5000 years. For generations, it has been revered as both a nutritious food and a valuable medicine. However, care should be taken to evaluate the purity and safety of this nutritional and medicinal agent to the human system. This study investigated the concentration of cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic and nickel in twenty-five samples of ready-to consume palm oil that were bought randomly from different markets in Lagos, Nigeria. The samples were digested with aqua-regia (2:1:2 HNO3:HClO4:H2SO4 respectively) and the digested samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. There was no detectable mercury in one of the twenty-five samples analysed. However, all the samples contained a detectable amount of each of the other five metals analysed. The Oral Component Limit (OCL) for cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic and nickel as stated by USP are 0.5μg/g, 25 μg/g, 1.5 μg/g, 1 μg/g, 1.5 μg/g and 25 μg/g respectively. The samples contained detectable amounts of the metals although with values below the USP standard OCL. The results obtained from this study suggest that the palm oil samples analysed are save for consumption in terms of the metals of interest analysed.

Factors impacting the formation of Monochloropropanediol (MCPD) fatty acid diesters during palm (Elaeis guineensis) oil production

Recently, organic and inorganic chlorinated compounds were detected in crude and commercially refined palm oils. Further, the predominant formation mechanism of monochloropropanediol (MCPD) diesters at high temperatures (>170–180°C) was revealed. The present study involved the development and comparison of solutions to mitigate MCPD diester levels in oils from various stages of palm oil production. Partially refined palm oil samples and oil extracted from fresh palm fruits were submitted to bench-top deodorisation experiments. Application of glycerol and ethanol as refining aids during the deodorisation of refined-bleached palm oil proved to be moderately effective; about 25%–35% reduction of MCPD diester levels was achieved. Washing crude palm oil with ethanol–water (1:1) prior to deodorisation was also an effective strategy yielding an ∼30% reduction of MCPD diester contents. Washing palm fruit pulp before oil extraction, however, was most impactful, resulting in a 95% reduction of MCPD diesters when compared to the deodorised control oil. This suggests that intervention upstream in the process chain is most efficient in reducing levels of these contaminants in refined oils. Following the study, a root-cause analysis was performed in order to map the parameters potentially responsible for the occurrence of MCPD diesters in refined palm oil and related fractions.

Glycidyl esters in refined palm (Elaeis guineensis) oil and related fractions. Part II: Practical recommendations for effective mitigation

In a previous work, it was shown that at high temperatures (up to 280°C) glycidyl esters (GE) are formed from diacylglycerols (DAG) via elimination of free fatty acid (FFA). In the present study, the impact of DAG content and temperature on the formation of GE using a model vacuum system mimicking industrial edible oil deodorization is investigated. These deodorization experiments confirmed that the formation of GE from DAG is extensive at temperatures above 230–240°C, and therefore, this value should be considered as an upper limit for refining operations. Furthermore, experimental data suggest that the formation of GE accelerates in particular when the DAG levels in refined oils exceed 3–4% of total lipids. Analysis of the lipid composition of crude palm oil (CPO) samples allowed the estimation that this critical DAG content corresponds to about 1.9–2.5% of FFA, which is the conventional quality marker of CPO. Moreover, high levels (>100ppm) of GE were also found in palm fatty acid distillate samples, which may indicate that the level of GE in fully refined palm oils also depends on the elimination rate of GE into the fatty acid distillate.

A simple and efficient multi-residue method based on QuEChERS for pesticides determination in palm oil by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry

In this study, a rapid, specific and sensitive multi-residue method based on acetonitrile extraction followed by dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) clean-up was implemented and validated for multi-class pesticide residues determination in palm oil for the first time. Liquid-liquid extraction followed by low-temperature precipitation procedure was evaluated in order to study the freezing-out clean-up efficiency to obtain high recovery yield and low co-extract fat residue in the final extract. For clean-up step, d-SPE was carried out using a combination of anhydrous magnesium sulphate (MgSO(4)), primary secondary amine, octadecyl (C(18)) and graphitized carbon black. Recovery study was performed at two concentration levels (10 and 100 ng g(-1)), yielding recovery rates between 74.52% and 97.1% with relative standard deviation values below 10% (n = 6) except diuron. Detection and quantification limits were lower than 5 and 9 ng g(-1), respectively. In addition, soft matrix effects (≤±20%) were observed for most of the studied pesticides except malathion that indicated medium (20-50%) matrix effects. The proposed method was successfully applied to the analysis of suspected palm oil samples.

Direct Determination of MCPD Fatty Acid Esters and Glycidyl Fatty Acid Esters in Vegetable Oils by LC–TOFMS

Analysis of MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in vegetable oils using the indirect method proposed by the DGF gave inconsistent results when salting out conditions were varied. Subsequent investigation showed that the method was destroying and reforming MCPD during the analysis. An LC time of flight MS method was developed for direct analysis of both MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in vegetable oils. The results of the LC–TOFMS method were compared with the DGF method. The DGF method consistently gave results that were greater than the LC–TOFMS method. The levels of MCPD esters and glycidyl esters found in a variety of vegetable oils are reported. MCPD monoesters were not found in any oil samples. MCPD diesters were found only in samples containing palm oil, and were not present in all palm oil samples. Glycidyl esters were found in a wide variety of oils. Some processing conditions that influence the concentration of MCPD esters and glycidyl esters are discussed.

Effectiveness of antioxidants in preventing oxidation of palm oil enriched with heme iron: A model for iron fortification in baked products

AbstractBakery products such as biscuits, cookies, and pastries represent a good medium for iron fortification in food products, since they are consumed by a large proportion of the population at risk of developing iron deficiency anemia, mainly children. The drawback, however, is that iron fortification can promote oxidation. To assess the extent of this, palm oil added with heme iron and different antioxidants was used as a model for evaluating the oxidative stability of some bakery products, such as baked goods containing chocolate. The palm oil samples were heated at 220°C for 10 min to mimic the conditions found during a typical baking processing. The selected antioxidants were a free radical scavenger (tocopherol extract (TE), 0 and 500 mg/kg), an oxygen scavenger (ascorbyl palmitate (AP), 0 and 500 mg/kg), and a chelating agent (citric acid (CA), 0 and 300 mg/kg). These antioxidants were combined using a factorial design and were compared to a control sample, which was not supplemented with antioxidants. Primary (peroxide value and lipid hydroperoxide content) and secondary oxidation parameters (p‐anisidine value, p‐AnV) were monitored over a period of 200 days in storage at room temperature. The combination of AP and CA was the most effective treatment in delaying the onset of oxidation. TE was not effective in preventing oxidation. The p‐AnV did not increase during the storage period, indicating that this oxidation marker was not suitable for monitoring oxidation in this model.

Chlorantraniliprole: A Novel Insecticide for Bagworm (Metisa plana) Control in Oil Palm Plantation

Bagworm is generally kept at low population in the natural habitat by many natural enemies. However, in the mono-cropping cultivation of oil palm plantation and during the absence of effective natural control, bagworm can increase into large population rapidly and cause severe damage to the crop. The bio-efficacy and rain fastness of chlorantraniliprole were evaluated against Metisa plana in the greenhouse in comparison with the currently used insecticides. There was no significant difference in the bio-efficacy between 12.5 ppm to 50.0 ppm chlorantraniliprole, 25.0 ppm to 50.0 ppm indoxacarb, 75.0 ppm cypermethrin and 1900.0 ppm trichlorfon treatments, but all these treatments were better than 324.0 ppm Bacillus thuringensis. The rain fastness properties of chlorantraniliprole at 25.0 ppm to 50.0 ppm was able to maintain 100.00 per cent insect control when subjected to 25 mm of artificial rainfall after 3 hours of spraying, but with slight decrease in efficacy at 12.5 ppm ( 91.67% mortality). However, it was better than 75.0 ppm cypermethrin and 1900.0 ppm trichlorfon which recorded 83.34 per cent and 50.00 per cent insect control respectively. The Day 1 laboratory bioassay test against adult Elaeidobius kamerunicus showed that chlorantraniliprole at 12.5 ppm to 50.0 ppm caused very low mortality on E. kamerunicus adults ranging from 7.50 per cent to 35.00 per cent, compared to 97.50 per cent to 100.00 per cent mortality by cypermethrin and trichlorfon respectively. Field evaluation of chlorantraniliprole of 50 ppm and 100 ppm by foliar application with power sprayer resulted in 94.12 per cent and 96.64 per cent insect control respectively, compared to 82.35 per cent for 1900.0 ppm trichlorfon and 52.10 per cent for 75.0 ppm cypermethrin. The residue level of chlorantraniliprole was very minimal in crude palm oil (CPO) samples and not detectable in palm kernel oil (PKO) samples. Keywords: Chlorantraniliprole, bagworm, Metisa plana, Elaeidobius kamerunicus, oil palm, foliar application, rain fastness.

Fatty acid esters of glycidol in refined fats and oils

AbstractDiscrepancies in the analysis of 3‐chloropropane‐1,2‐diol (3‐MCPD) esters can be explained by the hypothesis that in some refined oils significant amounts of fatty acid esters of glycidol (glycidyl esters) are present in addition to 3‐MCPD esters. Glycidyl esters were separated from triacylglycerols by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and detected by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). Six samples of palm oil and palm oil‐based fats were analyzed by GPC and GC‐MS. In chromatograms of all samples, significant peaks, retention time and mass spectra in conformity with self‐synthesized glycidyl palmitate and glycidyl oleate were detectable. Quantification of individual glycidyl esters was not possible because of a lack of pure standards. Concentration of ester‐bound glycidol in different samples of fats and oils was estimated using an indirect difference method. Glycidyl esters could be detected only in refined, but not in crude or native, fats and oils. The highest concentrations were detected in palm oil and palm oil‐based fats. In a palm oil sample, glycidyl ester concentration varied according to different deodorization parameters, temperature, and time, while 3‐MCPD ester concentration was relatively constant, indicating that mitigation of glycidyl esters possibly may be achieved by optimizing refining parameters.

DETERMINATION OF FREE FATTY ACIDS IN CRUDE PALM OIL, BLEACHED PALM OIL AND BLEACHED DEACIDIFIED PALM OIL BY FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

ABSTRACT A rapid method for quantitative determination of free fatty acids from crude palm oil to bleached palm oil (BPO) and then distilled BPO and refluxed BPO by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) transmission spectroscopy is described. A partial least square (PLS) model was calibrated to predict the FFA content of palm oil samples based on the spectral range of 1,729.89–1,694.48/cm. Multivariate calibration step was carried out by comparing the FFA values predicted by PLS model to the values obtained from the official American Oil Chemists' Society method. The resulting PLS calibrations were linear and the root mean standard error of cross‐validation was 0.063 with a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.9898. The results indicated that FTIR spectroscopy is an efficient, rapid and accurate method for determining the FFA content in palm oil.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONThe application of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy technique was studied to confirm the free fatty acid (FFA) content in bleached deacidified palm oil obtained from solvent deacidification process. FTIR spectroscopy afforded accurate results within a short period of time in a simple manner. Thus, FTIR is considered as a rapid, simple and solvent‐free alternative analytical method for determination of FFA content in edible oils.

Determination of cypermethrin in palm oil matrices

AbstractIn this study, a new method was developed for the determination of cypermethrin residue in both crude palm oil (CPO) and crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) using GC with electron capture detector. In this method, the oil was extracted with acetonitrile. Aliquots were cleaned‐up using combined solid phase extraction (SPE), and a primary‐secondary amine in combination with graphitized carbon black. The SPE cartridges were first conditioned and then eluted with acetonitrile. Cypermethrin recoveries from the fortified CPO samples were 87–98% with relative standard deviation (RSD) values of 4–8%, while those for the fortified CPKO samples were 83–100% with RSD values of 3–10%. Since good recoveries were obtained with RSD values below 10% in most cases, the proposed methodology will be useful for the analyses of palm oil samples. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of cypermethrin in real palm oil samples from various parts of Malaysia. No cypermethrin residue was found among 30 samples analyzed.

Acephate, methamidophos and monocrotophos residues in a laboratory‐scale oil refining process

AbstractAcephate, methamidophos and monocrotophos are insecticides used in oil palm plantations for the control of bagworms and leaf‐eating caterpillars. The main purpose of this study was to determine whether the physical refining process at laboratory scale, which simulated the manufacturing process, could remove the residues of these three insecticides in crude palm oil, in the unlikely event that crude palm oil were contaminated with these organophosphorus insecticides. A series of crude palm oil samples spiked with low (0.1 µg/g) and high (1.0 µg/g) levels of these insecticides were subjected to a laboratory‐scale physical oil refining process. Oil samples drawn at various stages of the refining process, namely, degumming, bleaching and deodorization, were analyzed using an in‐house analytical method. The results obtained from these experiments suggest that the physical refining process is capable of effectively removing residual insecticides from crude palm oil. The final product of crude palm oil refining, the refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil, was found to have no detectable levels of acephate, methamidophos and monocrotophos.

Simultaneous extraction of tocotrienols and tocopherols from cereals using pressurized liquid extraction prior to LC determination

Tocopherols and tocotrienols have been simultaneously determined in food samples using a rapid and simple analytical method including pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and LC with electrochemical detection. Separation was carried out on a Phenomenex Synergi 4 microm Hydro-RP 80A column, using a solution of 2.5 mM acetic acid/sodium acetate in methanol/water (99:1, v/v) as mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Column temperature was maintained at 30 degrees C. Detection was performed by coulometric detection at 500 mV except for (beta+gamma)-tocotrienol, in wheat and rye samples, which was at +350 mV. A palm oil containing a relatively large amount of gamma-tocotrienol and lower concentrations of alpha- and delta-tocotrienols and alpha- and gamma-tocopherols was used to provide reference retention times for the tocotrienols. Analyte quantification was performed using the external standard method. The calibration equations of tocopherols were used to quantify both tocopherols and their corresponding tocotrienols. The extraction recoveries obtained using the optimized PLE conditions were in the 80-114% range, with RSDs lower than 15%. The method was successfully applied to the determination of tocotrienols and tocopherols in cereal (wheat, rye, barley, maize and oat) and palm oil samples.

Ultrasound-assisted treatment of palm oil samples for the determination of copper and lead by stripping chronopotentiometry

The concentration of trace metals in vegetable oils is an important criterion for the assessment of oil qualities with regard to freshness, keeping properties, storage and their influence on human nutrition and health. In this work, an effective and simple method for the determination of copper and lead in palm oil by stripping chronopotentiometry (SCP) is proposed. The metal ions were concentrated as their amalgams on the glassy carbon surface of a working electrode that was coated with a thin mercury film. An ultrasonic bath was used for the extraction of copper and lead from eleven oil samples using a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Efficient extraction of copper and lead (∼ 100%) was attained after 60 min of ultrasonic pre-treatment. A good correlation between the amount of sample and the time necessary for complete liberation of the metals was observed. The accuracy of the method was evaluated by means of a reference sample of skim milk powder containing trace elements (BCR 151). Quantitative analysis was carried out by the method of standard additions. Good linearity was obtained in the range of the concentrations examined. Detection limits of 13 and 50 ng g − 1 were found for Cu and Pb, respectively, in the palm oil samples. The average values found for the palm oil samples analyzed were in the range of < 0.013–2.67 µg g − 1 for copper and < 0.050–1.82 µg g − 1 for lead. The palm oil samples were also analyzed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS), demonstrating a very good correlation between the results.

Quality assessment of palm oil sold in major markets in Abia State, Nigeria

This paper examines the quality of palm oil samples obtained from different locations in Abia State, Nigeria in terms of their physicochemical properties. The results obtained showed that the saponification value (SV) ranged from 129.04 – 198.03KOH/g of oil. The free fatty acid (FFA) of the palm oil samples ranged from 2.73 – 2.89mgKOH/g of oil, peroxide value (PV) 7.90 – 8.80meq/kg and the iodine value (IV) 52.61 – 53.48 Wiji's. The moisture content was in the range of 0.14-0.16% while the carotene content ranged from 1082 – 1458mg/kg. The results obtained after the analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that there were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the specific gravity, smoke, flash and fire points, moisture content, saponification value, peroxide value and free fatty acid values of the palm oil samples. However, there were significant differences (P

Comparative analysis of triacylglycerol composition, melting properties and polymorphic behavior of palm oil and fractions

AbstractPalm oil is without doubt the most widely fractionated oil. Dry fractionation is based on differences in the melting points of triacylglycerols (TAG) which will crystallize selectively during the cooling process. Unfortunately, limitations due to intersolubility, closely linked to polymorphism, induce formation of co‐crystals at each crystallization step. For this reason, only restricted TAG enrichments are observed. In this work, a series of samples (24) of palm oil, solid and liquid fractions (stearins, mid fractions, oleins and superoleins) have been selected and examined in terms of TAG composition (by HPLC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) melting profile and variable temperature powder X‐ray diffraction pattern. Three major endotherms [low‐melting, high‐melting and very high‐melting peaks (LMP, HMP and VHMP)] are detected in the DSC melting profiles (5 °C/min). The VHMP is only recorded for palm stearin which contains more SSS components. The HMP contribution is weak for palm olein and even not observed for palm super oleins. The LMP is usually made up of UUU, SUU and SUS components; SUS components are observed in both LMP and HMP; the HMP is also made up of some SSS, except for palm oleins and super oleins. Sub‐α2, sub‐α1, α, β'2, β'1 and β polymorphic forms are recorded; the LMP components preferentially crystallize in sub‐α2, sub‐α1 and α forms; the HMP components generally crystallize in β'2 and β'1, with a tendency to exhibit β crystals, depending on the SSS content. Components of the VHMP have an increased tendency to stabilize in the β form; in view of the results, we can assume that there is a clear relationship between TAG composition, melting properties and polymorphic behavior and of palm oil and fractions.

Piper betle: a potential natural antioxidant

Summary Piper betle Linn. (Family: Piperaceae) is a common plant cultivated in Asian countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant potential and possible applications of P. betle leaves grown in Sri Lanka. This was carried out using P. betle cold ethanolic extract (CEE), hot water extract (HWE) and essential oil (EO). The initial free radical scavenging activity of CEE was higher than that of butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT). Further, antioxidant activity of CEE, EO and HWE did not significantly deviate from the initial antioxidant activity up to 12 months. However, at elevated temperature (200 °C) antioxidant activity was significantly reduced (EC50 values of CEE, EO and BHT increased by fourfold and HWE by threefold) compared to their initial values. The reduction of antioxidant activity of CEE was lesser than that of BHT. Peroxide values (PV) were significantly lower in CEE‐incorporated coconut and palm oil samples compared to that of BHT‐treated samples. Moreover, CEE extended the shelf‐life of potato chips and increased the stability of Aloe gel.

Determination of free fatty acids in palm oil samples using non-aqueous flow injection titrimetric method

Flow injection (FI) non-aqueous titrimetric methods for the determination of free fatty acids (FFA) in palm oil samples are described. Single-line and two-line FI manifolds using phenolphthalein (PHP) and bromothymol blue (BTB) as indicators were developed. The method is based on the monitoring of the changes of absorbance of the indicators used from basic–acidic–basic form (pink–colourless–pink for PHP, blue–yellow–blue for BTB) as a result of the neutralization of KOH that was used as carrier stream by the injected FFA sample. FI parameters such as carrier and reagent concentration, flow-rate, length of reaction coil, size of mixing chamber and injected volume were optimized. The single-line manifold with PHT as indicator is recommended for the determination of samples with acidity degree (a.d.) higher than 0.4, but the oil samples need to be diluted with 2-propanol before their injection. For lower acidities (a.d. < 0.4), a two-line manifold with BTB as indicator is recommended. The two-line manifold allows direct injection of oil samples (no off-line dilution required). The optimized FIA method is linear over the range 0.4–10.0 a.d. (based on palmitic acid) for single-line manifold and 0.11–0.50 a.d. for the two-line manifold. Sample throughput of 35–74 and 21–46 samples h −1 for single-line and two-line manifolds, respectively, were achieved. Fifty different samples of palm oils were tested using the appropriate FIA manifolds, and results were compared with the standard PORIM procedure which involves manual titration. Good correlations between the two methods were obtained ( r 2, at least 0.92) UV–VIS absorption spectra indicate that the absorption of these oil samples were minimum at the detection wavelengths (562 nm for PHP and 627 for BTB), indicating that the method is negligibly interfered from the background colour of the samples.

A fourier transform infrared spectroscopic method for determining butylated hydroxytoluene in palm olein and palm oil

AbstractA simple, rapid, and direct FTIR spectroscopic method was developed for the determination of BHT content in refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) palm olein and RBD palm oil. The method used sodium chloride windows with a 50‐mm transmission path. Fifty stripped oil samples of both RBD palm olein and RBD palm oil were spiked with known amounts of BHT concentrations up to 300 mg/kg (ppm). The data were separated into two sets for calibration and validation using partial least squares models. FTIR results for both oils correlated well with results obtained by the IUPAC HPLC‐based method. For RBD palm olein, the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.9907 and the SE of calibration (SEC) was 8.47 ppm. For RBD palm oil, an R2 of 0.9848 and an SEC of 10.73 ppm were achieved. Because of the significant decrease in analysis time and reduction in solvent usage, this FTIR method for BHT is especially well suited for routine quality control applications in the palm oil industry.

ANALYSIS OF BUTYLATED HYDROXYANISOLE (BHA) IN RBD PALM OIL AND RBD PALM OLEIN USING PARTIAL LEAST SQUARES BASED ON FTIR SPECTROSCOPY

ABSTRACT A rapid method to determine butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in refined bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil and RBD palm olein was developed. The two sets of 50 stripped oils of RBD palm olein and RBD palm oil were spiked with known amounts of BHA concentrations up to 300 mg/kg (ppm) for calibration samples. The “leave‐one‐out” cross‐validation procedure was used to verify the calibration model. Partial least squares (PLS) calibration models for predicting BHA were developed by using the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy spectral regions from 3486 to 3140 cm −1 and 1140 to 898 cm −1 . The accuracy of the method was comparable to that of the high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) , with coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.9939 from calibration samples of RBD palm olein and an R2of 0.9884 for RBD palm oil samples. The results indicate that FTIR in conjunction with PLS is a useful analytical tool for simple and rapid quantitation of BHA in RBD palm oil and RBD palm olein for routine analysis.

PROCESS INTENSIFICATION OF MEMBRANE SYSTEM FOR CRUDE PALM OIL PRETREATMENT

ABSTRACT In the study conventional refining, microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes have been used experimentally to pretreat crude palm oil (CPO) samples with the aim of moving from the usual huge refinery plant to a more process integrated membrane module at ultrascale size that will even perform better than the former. Reduction of phosphorus for the membrane‐permeate of 43.4% was higher than that of bleached oil of 34.4%. When ceramic membranes with pore diameters of 0.45 µm and 0.2 µm were used in microfiltration, it was found that membrane with pore size of 0.45 µm was able to reject 14% of phosphorus, while ceramic membrane with pore size of 0.2 µm showed better phosphorus rejection of 56.8%. Upon applying ceramic membrane with pore sizes of 20 nm and 50 nm, 78.1% and 60% of phosphorus were rejected, respectively. Attributed to the superior performance of the membrane with 20 nm pore size over other membranes and conventional refining method on phosphorus content, a simulation study thus made, showed that the average slurry volume after about 22‐min runs for membrane with pore sizes of 0.45 µm, 0.2 µm, 50 nm and 20 nm, and the average slurry volumes are 0.05, 0.09, 0.13 and 0.18 m 3 , respectively. The percentage decrease between membrane pore size of 0.45 µm and 0.2 µm; 0.45 µm and 50 nm; and 0.45 µm and 20 nm are 73, 49 and 24%, respectively. The ultrafiltration achieved order of process miniaturization of about 10 2 −10 3 , which is in accordance with literature. This is a considerable size reduction in the process size, which reflects the magnitude of slurry volume that can be produced within a given time and meets every standard for process intensification through simulated process miniaturization.