Palm Oil Refinery Research Articles

Experimental investigation on properties of concrete mortar incorporating spent bleaching earth waste as supplementary cementitious material

This study presents the experimental investigation on properties of concrete mortar incorporating spent bleaching earth waste. Spent bleaching earth (SBE) is a solid waste from the palm oil refinery industry and is commonly used to remove coloring, metals, dirt, and other unwanted components in the oil. In this study, the purpose of using SBE material in the concrete mortar was as a partial replacement of cement. As natural SBE waste has relatively high oil content, a pre-processing treatment of natural SBE is needed to reduce the oil content of the spent bleaching earth. The pre-processing treatment of SBE was performed by extracting the oil content using acetone liquid. After extracting the oil content, the solid SBE was then used to supplement the cement content in the mortar. The mix design used in the test was based on the ASTM C311. The SBE content used in this research varied from 5% to 20%. The result indicates that the pre-processing treatment can reduce the oil content of the SBE and result in better compressive stress compared to the mortar with non-pre-processing treatment. Furthermore, the addition of 5% SBE as supplementary cementitious materials can enhance the compressive stress of the mortar compared to the normal concrete without SBE.

Valorization of palm oil soap stock waste toward for biodiesel production: Process optimization under zero waste concept

Palm oil soap stock (POSS) was recycled from bio-waste to bio-fuel. Firstly, POSS was converted through acidification to be acidified POSS (APOSS) coupled with solvent extraction. APOSS with a high content of free fatty acids (FFAs) (90.94%) was obtained. Subsequently, the FFAs in APOSS were converted to biodiesel via esterification, catalyzed by immobilized alginate-polyvinyl alcohol (ALG-PVA) lipase. The key factors affecting the reaction, such as the temperature (30–50 °C), methanol to FFA molar ratio (2:1 to 4:1), and agitation rate (150–250 rpm) were optimized by statistical response surface methodology (RSM). The highest biodiesel yield was achieved with a reaction temperature of 40 °C, methanol/FFA molar ratio of 3:1, and 200 rpm agitation rate, as the optimal conditions. Furthermore, the biocatalyst can be reused up to 16 cycles. Interestingly, the alternative biodiesel production process reported herein promotes zero waste from the palm oil refinery process.

SIX SIGMA IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA INDUSTRIES AND BUSINESSES: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW

Understanding quality in manufacturing starts with defect identification and improvement finding. Reliability that influenced by equipment design or working methods or environment has led to concept of improvement with six sigma method and this has been absorbed in Indonesia industries as well. This article discusses about six sigma implementation in Indonesia from various business and industries. The method is to review research articles that are published within 2016-2020 with keyword DMAIC and six sigma. The results from 52 selected articles is obtained average 3.68 sigma value of Indonesia industries within year 2016-2020 with the least value 1.10 from crude palm oil refinery and the highest is 5.10 from bagging process of sugar refinery. However, six sigma application is not always satisfying concerning its suitability function, requirement of industries, culture, local regulation, and internal business concern, especially in terms of efficiency and cost. Future research is suggested utilizing industry 4.0 concept to enhance six sigma implementations.

Improved Thermal Properties and Flow Behavior of Palm Olein-Based Diacylglycerol: Impact of Sucrose Stearate Incorporation

Palm olein-based diacylglycerol (POL-DAG) oil is a healthy product that is produced through enzymatic reaction and purification processes. However, POL-DAG oil easily solidifies at room temperature and crystallizes at high temperatures. The effect of different concentrations of sucrose stearate (1 and 10 g kg−1) added as a nonionic emulsifier, to POL-DAG oil containing 800 g kg−1 diacylglycerol, on its physical properties and flow behavior were investigated. The thermal properties of POL-DAG oil in melting, crystallization transition, and onset temperature were significantly decreased (p < 0.05) with the addition of emulsifiers. Besides, the incorporation of emulsifiers also significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the hardness of POL-DAG oil. Moreover, all POL-DAG oils with emulsifiers incorporated exhibited shear-thinning behavior, a low consistency coefficient (K) and a low apparent viscosity. The present study resolves the solidification issue and eases the pourability of POL-DAG oil by the incorporation of sucrose stearate. The process of adding an emulsifier to POL-DAG oil is a simple method that does not require advanced technology or process modifications to manage the POL-DAG oil and thus is highly applicable for the fats and oils industries and palm oil refineries.

Effects of Spent and Deoiled Bleaching Earth Filler-Based NPK Fertilization on the Soil Nutrient Status and Growth of Soybean (Glycine max (L. ) Merrill)

<p>The bleaching process at the crude palm oil (CPO) refinery stage is one of the processes sufficient to determine the quality of the cooking oil produced. CPO is refined to eliminate the unacceptable substances before consumption. The process produces spent bleaching earth (SBE) and deoiled bleaching earth (DBE) classified as hazardous and toxic material waste. However, according to several studies, SBE and DBE have the potential as filler materials in NPK fertilizers. This study aimed to study the effect of SBE and DBE filler-based NPK fertilization on the soil nutrient status and growth characteristics of soybean, thereby determining if the SBE and DBE materials can be used to replace some of the filler components in the NPK fertilizers. The study was a single factor experiment arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of four blocks as replications. The treatments tested were fertilization of 10% bentonite clay mineral filler-based NPK (control), 5% bentonite clay mineral + 5% SBE filler-based NPK and 5% bentonite clay mineral + 5% DBE filler-based NPK. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and tested using LSD test at a 95% confidence level. The results showed that the SBE and DBE materials could partially replace the filler components in bentonite clay filler-based NPK fertilizers, which were shown to have the same effect on soil chemical properties and levels of heavy metals after treatment, levels and uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in plants tissues and growth characteristic in the form of total dry weight.</p>

Glycerol purification using reactivated spent bleaching earth from palm oil refineries: Zero-waste approach

This work uses reactivated spent bleaching earth (RSE) from palm oil refineries to reduce the impurities content (e.g., free fatty acid (FFA), carotenoid and chlorophyll) in crude glycerol. The influences of three important reactivation parameters on the removal of impurities are studied. The maximum removal percentage of all impurities is obtained using the RSE fabricated at activation temperature T = 40 °C, n-hexane to spent earth ratio mh = 15, and surfactant loading mc = 0.75 wt%; which, hereinafter referred to as RSE-m. Further glycerol purification test using RSE-m at various adsorption temperature (Ta) and RSE-m loading (ma) show that FFA, carotenoid, and chlorophyll are effectively reduced by 47.45, 93.39, and 96.63 wt%, respectively, at Ta = 50 °C and ma = 10 wt%., with all specification comparable, if not superior, to those of commercial industrial grade glycerol. The kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies also suggest that the adsorption of the pigmented compounds on the RSE-m surface is spontaneous, endothermic, and driven by physical attraction via hydrophobic binding (for both pigments) and electrostatic interaction (for chlorophyll only). The adsorption results indicate that RSE-m has a great affinity to all glycerol impurities, and can be considered as a promising adsorbent for glycerol purification. As this study implements the zero-waste approach by using RSE, it will prominently reduce the solid waste generated by the palm oil refineries, and at the same time, offers a cost-effective route for the refining of glycerol.

Biojet Fuel Production from Waste of Palm Oil Mill Effluent through Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Decarboxylation

Palm oil mill effluent (POME), wastewater discharged from the palm oil refinery industry, is classified as an environmental pollutant. In this work, a heterogeneous catalytic process for biojet fuel or green kerosene production was investigated. The enzymatic hydrolysis of POME was firstly performed in order to obtain hydrolysed POME (HPOME) rich in free fatty acid (FFA) content. The variations of the water content (30 to 50), temperature (30 to 60 °C) and agitation speed (150 to 250 rpm) were evaluated. The optimal condition for the POME hydrolysis reaction was obtained at a 50% v/v water content, 40 °C and 200 rpm. The highest FFA yield (Y FA) of 90% was obtained. Subsequently, FFA in HPOME was converted into hydrocarbon fuels via a hydrocracking reaction catalysed by Pd/Al2O3 at 400 °C, 10 bars H2 for 1 h under a high pressure autoclave reactor (HPAR). The refined-biofuel yield (94%) and the biojet selectivity (57.44%) were achieved. In this study, we are the first group to successfully demonstrate the POME waste valorisation towards renewable biojet fuel production based on biochemical and thermochemical routes. The process can be applied for the sustainable management of POME waste. It promises to be a high value-added product parallel to the alleviation of wastewater environmental issues.

An integrated simulation–optimisation approach for free fatty acid removal in palm oil deodorisation process

AbstractDeodorisation is the key process to produce high‐quality refined, bleached and deodorised palm oil (RBDPO) in a palm oil refinery. In this work, an integrated simulation–optimisation approach was adopted for the analysis of a deodorisation process in an operating palm oil refinery. The process includes a deodoriser unit that removes free fatty acids (FFA) from bleached palm oil (BPO), and a vacuum scrubber utilising palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to reduce the FFA content entering the vacuum system. Being a proprietary technology, deodoriser is not found in the standard models of commercial simulation software. Approximation was made in simulation, with results compared to plant data. Detailed analyses showed that the reduction of FFA content relies on deodorisation temperature and pressure, stripping steam flowrate, as well as the temperature and flowrate of PFAD entering the vacuum scrubber. An optimisation model was solved to maximise profit from the deodorisation. Results showed that the FFA content entering the vacuum system is reduced significantly by 49.7%, leading to higher recovery of FFA in PFAD and lower loss into the condenser section. Applying the optimum values to the refinery has resulted in FFA levels greater than 91.2% in PFAD and RBDPO yield improvement of 0.5%.

Targeting anchor process via cooperative game-based optimisation approach within integrated palm oil-based complex

Recent threats to sustainability in the palm oil milling industry such as methane emissions, has impacted the palm oil market negatively. To facilitate methane emission mitigation, most palm oil mills opt for expensive biogas facilities. An alternative solution to this expensive biogas facility, can be an integrated palm oil-based complex (POBC). POBC is proposed to reduce environmental consequences while maximising the palm oil mill profit by integrating it with a palm oil refinery and implementing POME elimination strategy. However, in order to understand the feasibility of the POBC, it is important to identify the most crucial process otherwise known as the anchor process. The anchor process can be determined based on the allocation of incremental economic benefits among the internal processes. On that account, in work proposes a new process-level performance allocation approach based on cooperative game theory to investigate future optimisation strategies for the POBC. Cooperative game theory was previously applied for rationally allocating incremental profits among collaborating parties and determining anchor tenant within an eco-industrial park. In this study, the cooperative game model analyses internal processes instead of collaborating plants to determine the anchor process. The anchor process is critical for defining performance benchmarks for other processes within the POBC. The developed framework is applied consecutively on the given POBC case study based on the presented framework. The optimal results obtained are analysed to determine the anchor process for deciding suitable strategies to improve the overall profitability of POBC.

Treatment of Palm Oil Refinery Effluent Using Tannin as a Polymeric Coagulant: Isotherm, Kinetics, and Thermodynamics Analyses.

The refining of the crude palm oil (CPO) generates the palm oil refinery effluent (PORE). The presence of high contents of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), turbidity, and suspended solids (SS) in PORE encourages the determination of an effective treatment process to minimize the environmental pollution and preserve aquatic life. In the present study, a biodegradable natural polymer, namely tannin, was utilized as a coagulant to treat PORE. The coagulation experiment was conducted using a jar test apparatus. The tannin coagulation efficiency was evaluated based on the BOD, COD, turbidity, and SS removal from PORE by varying the tannin dose (50–300 mg/L), pH (pH 4–10), treatment time (15–90 min), and sedimentation time (15–90 min). It was found that the maximum removal of BOD, COD, turbidity, and SS was 97.62%, 88.89%, 93.01%, and 90.21%, respectively, at pH 6, a tannin dose of 200 mg/L, 60 min of coagulation time, and 60 min of sedimentation time. Analyses of isotherm models revealed that the Freundlich isotherm model was well fitted with the coagulation study. Kinetics studies show that the pseudo-second-order kinetics model was the well-fitted kinetics model for the BOD, COD, turbidity, and SS removal from PORE using tannin as a polymeric coagulant. The determination of thermodynamics parameters analyses revealed that BOD, COD, turbidity, and SS removal from PORE was spontaneous, exothermic, and chemical in nature. The finding of the present study shows that tannin as a natural polymeric coagulant would be utilized in PORE treatment to avoid toxic sludge generation.

Life-cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of palm fatty acid distillate derived renewable diesel

This study aims to quantify life-cycle fossil energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) derived renewable diesel (RD) taking into consideration different feedstock classifications that are applicable to PFAD (residue, byproduct, or coproduct), and incorporating updated data for key processes. Under the three classifications, the PFAD to RD pathway was modeled using the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies (GREET®) model. PFAD-derived RD could reduce fossil energy consumption by 77%–88%, relative to petroleum diesel. GHG emissions are very sensitive to PFAD classification and coproduct handling methods. Considering the production of palm oil and PFAD and economic value, we maintain that PFAD should be treated as a byproduct in palm oil refineries. With this treatment, PFAD-derived RD could achieve 84% GHG emissions reductions, compared to the emissions of petroleum diesel. We also employed a substitution method to address the substitution of PFAD by other materials in the marketplace. Compared to coproduct allocation results, we found substituting PFAD by tallow, soy oil, barley, and canola oil results in lower GHG emissions. Due to high induced land-use change emissions associated with palm farming, if PFAD is treated as a coproduct with refined palm oil, PFAD-derived RD may not deliver GHG reductions. A sensitivity analysis identified key parameters such as palm fruit yield, oil extraction efficiency in oil mills, and energy use intensity for RD production affects LCA results significantly; future efforts to improve these parameters could result in further GHG reductions.

Quality prediction and diagnosis of refined palm oil using partial correlation analysis

Regression technique such as partial correlation analysis has been widely used as tool of prediction in business, finance and biomedical field. However, the application of predictive analysis in chemical process, specifically palm oil refinery process has rarely been done. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to present a quality prediction and diagnosis tool using partial correlation analysis, with the aim to predict the quality of refined palm oil and to diagnose the crude palm oil and process variables. Several statistical analysis are applied in data pre-process to obtain statistical sample size, optimum sampling and processing time of the process. The predictor coefficient is developed using partial correlation analysis while control chart is used to monitor the process behavior of both predicted and actual output value. The monitored out-of-control behavior is then diagnosed using SPE-contribution plot to identify the faulty input variables, thus pre-treatment can be executed before the refining process. The predicted model is successfully developed with MSE value less than 0.01 and three faulty variables are identified.

Mechanical Properties and Sustainability of Palm Kernel Shell Powder (PKSP) as a Partial Replacement of Cement

This research showed the results of experiments evaluating the use of palm kernel shell powder from palm oil refinery waste production as partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Many researchers have studied the use of agro-waste as constituents in concrete but not as a partial replacement of cement specifically. Therefore, the objective of this research is to identify the performance of palm kernel shell powder as partial replacement of cement in the production of concrete. Palm kernel shell powder in various amounts, namely 5%,10%,15% and 20 % by volume was added as a replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). The results showed that palm kernel shell powder concrete greatly improved the workability, compressive and flexural strength of concrete. All of the testing were followed the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The workability of concrete was tested by using slump test to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. For compressive strength, a total of 27 cubes with size 150mm × 150mm × 150mm were used to determine the compressive strength of concrete when replace with 5%, 10%,15% and 20% of palm kernel shell powder as a replacement of cement in concrete. The results showed that palm kernel shell powder concrete greatly improved the compressive and flexural strength of concrete. The rate of water absorption of palm kernel shell powder reduced as palm kernel shell powder filled up the existing voids while making it impermeable. However, the compressive strength of the palm kernel shell powder decreases gradually when the amount increased. It can be concluded that the optimum amount of palm kernel shell powder as partial cement replacement is 15%. In the correction, an experimental investigation of ultrasonic pulse velocity(UPV), carbonation test and rebound hammer test was undertaken to palm kernel shell powder and admixtures as partial replacement cement in concrete.

Spent Bleaching Earth Supported CeFeO3 Perovskite for Visible Light Photocatalytic Oxidation of Methylene Blue

Dyes substances from the textile industry wastewater are internationally classified as poisonous substances, and they cause a severe threat to humans being and other living things, even at low concentrations. Therefore, this waste has to be treated before discharge to the environment. One of the most effective processes for degrading dyes is photocatalytic oxidation. Two different pretreatments of Spent bleaching earth (SBE) from palm oil refinery plant were applied to produce catalyst supports. The SBEe support was prepared by extraction using n-hexane, SBEc by calcination at 500 oC, and then used as a support for CeFeO3/SBEe and CeFeO3/SBEc perovskite catalyst. Both catalysts were tested for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) using photocatalytic oxidation. The properties of catalysts were characterized using some characterization methods, such as thermogravimetric-differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with Dispersive Energy X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), specific surface area (BET) and pore size analysis. CeFeO3/SBEe catalyst was found more efficient in photocatalytic oxidation for MB compared with the CeFeO3/SBEc catalyst. CeFeO3/SBEe catalyst could degrade 99.5% of MB during 120 min, at the condition of 25 mg/L MB, 1.0 g/L catalyst, and pH 7. The effect of pH on the performance of the catalyst followed the order of pH 7 > pH 9 > pH 5. Moreover, the CeFeO3/SBEe catalyst demonstrated excellent activity in the degradation of MB, displaying that CeFeO3/SBEe is a favorable catalyst for water purification.

Analysis of Near Infra Red (NIR) Impact as the Control Process of a Palm Oil Mill and Refinery Plant for Environmental Sustainability

Analysis of Near Infra Red (NIR) Impact as the Control Process of a Palm Oil Mill and Refinery Plant for Environmental Sustainability

Glycerolysis of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) as Biodiesel Feedstock Using Heterogeneous Catalyst

Biodiesel is normally produced through transesterification of triglycerides with methanol in the presence of an alkaline catalyst. With the uncertain crude oil prices and competition of vegetable oils used for food purposes, alternative feedstock for biodiesel production has to be studied. In this study, palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), a by-product of the palm oil refinery was used as a feedstock. Glycerolysis reaction was carried out from 160 to 200 °C in the presence of a natural CaO catalyst derived from raw chicken eggshell. The commercial CaO was also evaluated as a control. The results showed that the free fatty acid (FFA) was reduced from 81 to 1.5% using activated eggshell as catalyst at reaction temperature of 180 °C and catalyst dosage of 1.5 wt% while commercial CaO reduced FFA to 3.7% at reaction temperature of 200 °C and 1.5 wt% of catalyst dosage, respectively. The treated PFAD can be used for biodiesel production.

Mini Review: Hypocholesterolemic Potential of Unsaponifiable Matter from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

Palm fruit as raw material of palm oil is the main commodity of Indonesian agriculture. Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of palm oil refinery process in deodorization stage. PFAD contained bioactive compounds such as vitamin E, phytosterols, and squalene. Vitamin E, phytosterols, and squalene have knows for its hypocholesterolemic effect and cardio protector. Bioactive compounds of PFAD can be separated from its fatty acid using saponification reaction. Saponification of PFAD produced unsaponifiable matter (USM) which was rich in bioactive compounds. Food fortification is aimed to enhance the nutrition quality of food for specific reason. The fortificant can be macronutrient or micronutrient. USM of PFAD potentially become food product fortificant which will give hypocholesterolemic effect. This review is discussed about hypocholesterolemic effect of each bioactive compounds in USM of PFAD and the potential of USM as food fortificant espsecially for food with hypocholesterolemic effect.

Optimal Design of Integrated Palm Oil Complex with Palm Oil Mill Effluent Elimination Strategy

Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is one of the biggest pollution sources due to its eutrophying nature and methane emitting treatment technology. Although biogas capture and utilisation have been widely encouraged to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation in palm oil mills (POM), most Malaysian POMs still find it economically infeasible to invest in proper biogas facilities. Hence, POME elimination should be considered as one of the waste management options in synthesising palm oil processing pathway for profit enhancement and GHG mitigation. One of the solutions to achieve sustainability in palm oil industry is to integrate POM and palm oil refinery (POR) in terms of waste management, energy and resource. Therefore, it is desired to design an optimally integrated palm oil based-complex (POBC) which considers POME evaporation approach. The main objective of this study is to develop a model to aid POBC planning via synthesis of an integrated resource and utility network considering POME elimination with maximum profit. Based on the case study, maximum USD 36.65 x 106 is obtained for the optimal POBC design with POME elimination pathway selected. The optimum production rate for Refined, Bleached, Deodorised Palm Olein (RBDPOL) is 10.309 t/h which is boosted compared to the baseline study. 61 % less water demand is also achieved. The research output, the developed model and optimal network shall provide input to POM owners on optimal POME management and determine the economic feasibility of proposed POBC in Malaysia.

The Challenges and Opportunities of Solar Thermal for Palm Oil Industry in Malaysia

Renewable energy is the key solution to the growing energy crisis. Renewable energy resources such as solar, biomass, wind, and wave energy are infinite, abundant and environmentally friendly. Solar energy is one of the most promising renewable energy sources in the equatorial zone of Malaysia. Photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal are the current technology implemented in harvesting solar energy to generate energy. The purpose of this study is to investigate the potential implementation of solar thermal technologies at the palm oil industrial processes in Malaysia. In order to determine the potential, analysis of palm oil processes operational condition is needed, then a solar thermal potential based on irradiation will be assessed. A review of solar thermal potential and process heat requirement in the palm oil industrial leads to the selection of promising unit processes that can be integrated with solar thermal. The palm oil processes in this study includes palm oil refinery and oleochemicals. The challenges and opportunities for integrated solar thermal with palm oil processes are discussed as well. The outcomes of this study facilitate the implementation of solar thermal technologies in prioritized processes in the palm oil industry.

In-vivo Test of Calcium Soap from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) in Three Cow Farms

Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) refinery. As the largest CPO producer, Indonesia exported an abundant amount of PFAD without further processing. The use of calcium soap as a supplement for ruminant feed will increase the productivity of dairy cows in Indonesia. Hence, this study reported in-vivo tests that were conducted to determine the effect of calcium soap supplementation on dairy cows. The result showed that feeding calcium soap to dairy cows could increase productivity and extend the lactation period. The milk quality also improved by the increase of fat content and density which lead to an increase in milk prices. Based on the field observations in three animal husbandries, calcium soap improved the health and fertility of cows.