Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate Research Articles

Evaluation of a novel palm-free fat supplement to reduce the carbon footprint of diets for dairy cows

Most fat supplements added to dairy diets are derived from palm acid oil or palm fatty acid distillate. There are environmental concerns about palm oil production due to deforestation and high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The objective of this study was to evaluate a palm-free fat supplement, Envirolac. Envirolac contains vegetable oils, marine oils and glycerine encapsulated within a cellulosic fibre-clay mineral carrier matrix. The carrier matrix has small particle size to facilitate rapid rumen passage and minimal interference with rumen digestion. Fifty cows were divided into two balanced groups of 25 cows. Each group received Control (calcium soap of palm fatty acid distilate, 0.5 kg/d) and Envirolac (0.5 kg/d) diets in a crossover design with two feeding periods of four weeks duration, so that each cow received both diets. Envirolac has a lower total fat concentration than the calcium soap, so the feeding rate delivered less total fat. When fed on Envirolac, cows yielded more milk 40.7 v 40.1 kg/d), energy-corrected milk (ECM; 42.9 v 41.3 kg/d) and milk components (1605 v 1514 g fat, 1239 v 1199 g protein, 1871 v 1839 g lactose, per day), and produced milk with higher concentrations of fat (40.1 v 38.6 g/kg) and protein (30.7 v 30.1 g/kg), than when fed on Control. When fed on Envirolac, cows produced milk with higher concentrations of fatty acids (FA) synthesised de novo in the mammary gland (25.5 v 23.6 g/100 g total FA), lower concentration of palmitic acid (35.5 v 37.2 g/100 g total FA), and higher concentrations of some long-chain fatty acids (C20:0, C20:1, C20:3n3, C21:0, C22:0, C22:6n3 and C23:0), than when fed on Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter intake (DMI; mean 23.4 kg/d), so feed efficiency was higher (1.83 v 1.76 kg ECM/kg DMI) for Envirolac than Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter digestibility (0.73), methane production (433 g/d), methane yield (19.3 g/kg DMI) or methane intensity (10.9 g/kg ECM). Feed carbon footprint of Envirolac was calculated to be 1028 g CO2eq/kg DM, which is 0.46 of the value for a calcium soap (2830 g CO2eq/kg DM), and reduced feed carbon footprint per kg ECM milk production by 11 %. This study demonstrates that Envirolac can replace palm-based fat supplements in dairy diets to improve feed efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of milk production.

Enhanced stability of natural vitamin E from palm oil by forming inclusion complexes with cyclodextrin and its application on PLA fabric

Vitamin E extracted from palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate, through biodiesel conversion, was stabilized by forming inclusion complexes with β-CD and HP-β-CD. These complexes were successfully applied to nonwoven PLA fabrics.

Separation of squalene rich fraction from palm oil fatty acid distillate (PFAD): A review

Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of the palm oil industry which has many potential bioactive compounds such as vitamin E, phytosterols and squalene. To obtain multi-component bioactive compounds, saponification and extraction processes are required. The purpose of this study was to identify a review of the comparison of several methods that are more optimal in separating the Squalene-Rich Fraction from Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD). The study uses the systematic literature review method, where the review will study and compare several journal descriptions regarding comparisons in managing the optimal separation of the squalene fraction from the three types of methods offered, namely the method using solvents, the method using high pressure supercritical fluid extraction and the isolation of squalene method using Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. This review presents a descriptive analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the three methods. The study compared three methods for separating the squalene-rich fraction. The review suggests that the safest method to use is separation with low temperature solvents or the so-called low temperature solvent crystallization. Reviews show that this method will not destroy bioactive compounds which are easily oxidized, be easy to apply, require low production cost and capable of producing high purity squalene-rich fractions.

EFEK HEPATOPROTEKTOR FRAKSI TIDAK TERSABUNKAN DARI DALMS TERHADAP KONDISI STRES OKSIDATIF PADA TIKUS WISTAR

Palm oil fatty acid distillate (POFAD) is a byproduct of the process of refining palm oil, which still contains compounds. As a result of the increasing production of palm oil in Indonesia and POFAD, making POFAD has the potential as a source of tocotrienols, which can act as natural antioxidants and protect the liver against oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to study the effects of hepatoprotection of the non-atomized fraction of POFAD in vivo and to find out the best dose of non-soapy fraction of POFAD on MDA levels, SOD of rat liver, and histopathological features in oxidative stress conditions due to waste cooking oil intake. The study design used was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) which was composed of 6 treatment groups consisting of negative (normal), positive (indiscriminate) control groups, non-dose fraction I (100 mg/kg BW) fractions, non-soapy fractions dose II (200 mg/kg body weight), non-atomic dose III (500 mg/kg body weight), the non-dose fraction (1000 mg/kg body weight) and each treatment were repeated four times. Observational data obtained were processed statistically with the ANOVA test and continued with the Smallest Significant Difference Test (BNT) processed with SPSS for Windows 16 series. The results of this study indicate that the non-soapy fraction of palm oil fatty acid distillates has the ability to protect the liver from organ damage to dose III, namely the administration of non-soapy fractions at a dose of 500 mg/kg body weight.

Gasoline Yield Enhancement in Fluid Catalytic Cracking by Coprocessing of Petroleum Gasoil with Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil and Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

Gasoline is liquid hydrocarbon fuel used for spark-ignition engine. Most of gasoline production is carried out in the petroleum oil refinery through several stages of process and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is an important process that can convert some of heavy oil fractions like vacuum gasoil (VGO) and residue to be cracked into gasoline and lighter products. Consumption of gasoline for transportation fuel in Indonesia is higher than its production capability, so this gap has compelled to search the alternative process route using renewable feedstock. Coprocessing of petroleum gasoil with crude palm oil in fluid catalytic cracking had been investigated previously resulting in lower value of conversion as well as gasoline yield when applying co-feeds at higher level of vegetable oils. Cracking feedstock containing triglyceride and fatty acid from vegetable oil is supposed to be the other possibility as a reason of conversion and yield changes. The research work is aimed to find out another way for gasoline yield upgrading in fluid catalytic cracking process using available catalyst by coprocessing of VGO with refined bleached deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) and small amount of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). The experimental work of cracking reaction was performed on fluid-bed reactor of ACE unit at temperature of 530 °C, nearly atmospheric pressure and catalyst-oil ratio of 5.5 g/g. Three kind of oil feeds were tested namely VGO, VGO mixed with 5% RBDPO and VGO added with 5% RBDPO-PFAD of mixing ratio 9:1. The cracking reaction results in gaseous and liquid products. The gaseous phase product was analyzed using online gas chromatography to detect light hydrocarbon components of C1, C2 and H2 as dry gas and hydrocarbon components of C3 and C4 as LPG. The liquid item was investigated through gas chromatography of simulated distillation to separate fluid components including gasoline, light cycle oil (LCO) and slurry oil. Carbon material placed on catalyst through cracking reaction was analyzed at regeneration step of spent catalyst passed through catalytic converter by online Infrared method. Coprocessing of VGO with 5% RBDPO and VGO with 5% RBDPO-PFAD can alter conversion and product yields. The presence of triglyceride and fatty acid in oil feeds during cracking reaction influence signifi- cantly to gasoline enhancement. Although this coprocessing work has shown initial phenomenon in accordance with hypothesis, further investigation is necessary to explore deeper in order to obtain an optimized process condition by various levels of coprocessing feed.

“Legumix” Stylosanthes pellets: A healthier and more sustainable animal feed

The development of a range of animal feeds based on leaf meal of the tropical forage legume Stylosanthes guianensis var. guianensis (“tropical alfalfa”) in Costa Rica, their potential for improving health of animals and consumers of animal products, the local and national economy, and ecological implications are described. A subproduct of the oil palm industry (palm oil fatty acid distillate) is used to supplement the Stylosanthes leaf meal with sufficient energy to produce a complete pelleted feed. Customer case studies showed that Stylosanthes-based feeds are highly palatable and improve health and performance of farm animals (horses, rabbits, calves, sheep, and goats) over that observed when using grain-based feeds. The improved quality of Stylosanthes-based over grain-based feed for ruminants could play an important role in the reduction of methane emissions and their negative consequences for climate change. A sustainable system whereby Stylosanthes is planted in association with plantation trees is proposed, providing a supplementary income for tree farmers and other benefits, such as weed control and soil amelioration. Stylosanthes can be rotated with sugarcane and pineapple, and cash flow projections show that Stylosanthes leaf meal production would be a favorable alternative activity for local farmers, yielding a greater and more constant income than sugarcane. Achieving economy of scale in the industrial process would permit production at lower cost to compete with the price of imported grain-based feed. Lack of finance is currently the major obstacle to scaling up the process, implementing the technology in different countries, and obtaining the concomitant benefits of food security, import substitution, improved ecological sustainability, and healthiness of animal products.

Safety assessment of the substance poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyhexanoate) for use in food contact materials.

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes and Processing Aids (CEP Panel) assessed the safety of poly((R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐(R)‐3‐hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBH), CAS No 147398‐31‐0 and food contact material (FCM) substance No 1059. This biodegradable copolymer is produced by fermentation of palm oil using a genetically modified microorganism (Cupriavidus necator). Overall migration was up to 5.4 mg/kg. Oligomers are hydroxyl‐terminated or with crotyl‐ and hexenyl end‐groups from dehydration of hydroxyl end‐groups. In the absence of calibration standards, the total oligomer migration was set at the overall migration values. Other degradation products are crotonic acid and (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid. Crotonic acid is authorised for use in FCMs with a specific migration limit (SML) of 0.05 mg/kg food. For (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid, no indication for genotoxicity was identified by the EFSA CEF Panel in its group evaluation of flavouring substances in FGE.05Rev2 (EFSA CEF Panel, 2010b). The other migrating substances detected, ■■■■■, are from the authorised substance ‘palm oil and/or palm fatty acid distillate’ (FCM substance No 9) used as a carbon source for the fermentation and do not give rise to safety concern. A PHBH oligomer mixture was synthesized to simulate that migrating. It did not give rise to concern for genotoxicity. From the repeated dose 90‐day oral toxicity study in rats, the Panel identified the no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level (NOAEL) at the highest dose tested in males, 1,364 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day. The Panel concluded that the potential for bioaccumulation of oligomers is low. Overall, the CEP Panel concluded that the substance PHBH is not of safety concern for the consumer if it is used alone or blended with other polymers in contact with all kinds of food during more than 6 months at room temperature or below, including hot‐fill or a short heating up phase. The specific migration of all oligomers < 1,000 Da should not exceed 5 mg/kg food. The migration of crotonic acid should not exceed the SML of 0.05 mg/kg food. As the migration of (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid can be expected to be always lower than that of crotonic acid, no individual restriction is necessary.

SUPERSEDED: Safety assessment of the substance poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyhexanoate) for use in food contact materials.

This opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of poly((R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐(R)‐3‐hydroxyhexanoate), Chemical s Service (CAS) No 147398‐31‐0 and food contact material (FCM) substance No 1059, for contact with dry/solid food. This biodegradable (co)polymer is produced by fermentation of palm oil using a genetically modified microorganism (Cupriavidus necator). No migration of oligomers into food simulant E (10 days at 40 and 60°C) was found at a detection limit per single oligomer of 5 μg/kg food. Migration of the degradation product crotonic acid was 8 and 25 μg/kg at the two test temperatures, respectively. The other migrating substances detected, ■■■■■, likely originated from or are related to the authorised substance (FCM No. 9) ‘palm oil and/or palm fatty acid distillate’ used as carbon source for the fermentation. At the migration levels reported, these migrants do not give rise to safety concern. No genotoxicity data are required for poly((R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐(R)‐3‐hydroxyhexanoate) because of its high molecular weight. The fraction below 1,000 Da is 0.5%. The major monomeric unit in the copolymer, 3‐hydroxybutyric acid, is an intermediate in fatty acid metabolism. The minor monomeric unit, 3‐hydroxyhexanoic acid, tested negative for bacterial gene mutations. Degradation products, which may be present in the (co)polymer, are crotonic acid and (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid. Crotonic acid is authorised for use in FCM with a specific migration limit (SML) of 0.05 mg/kg food; for (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid, no indication for genotoxicity was identified by the EFSA CEF Panel in its 2010 group evaluation of flavouring substances in FGE.05Rev2. The CEF Panel concluded that the substance poly((R)‐3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐(R)‐3‐hydroxyhexanoate) is not of safety concern if used alone or in blends with other polymers for contact with dry/solid food. If the SML of crotonic acid is met, migration of (E)‐2‐hexenoic acid will also not exceed 0.05 mg/kg food.

Bioactive compounds from palm fatty acid distillate and crude palm oil

Crude palm oil (CPO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) are rich sources of bioactive compounds. PFAD is a by-product of palm oil refinery that produce palm frying oil. Physical refining of palm oil by deodorization produces palm fatty acid distillate. CPO and PFAD contain some bioactive compounds such as vitamin E (tocopherol and tocotrienols), phytosterol, and squalene. Bioactive compounds of CPO and PFAD are vitamin E, phytosterols, and squalene. Vitamin E of CPO and PFAD mainly comprised of tocotrienols and the remaining is tocopherol. Phytosterols of CPO and PFAD contained beta sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Tocotrienols and phytosterols of CPO and PFAD, each can be separated to produce tocotrienol rich fraction and phytosterol rich fraction. Tocotrienol rich fraction from PFAD has both antioxidant and cholesterol lowering properties. Bioactive compounds of PFAD silmultaneously have been proven to improve lipid profile, and have hepatoprotector effect, imunomodulator, antioxidant properties, and lactogenic effect in animal test experiment. It is possible to develop separation of bioactive compounds of CPO and PFAD integratively with the other process that utilizes fatty acid.

A carbon footprint of HVO biopropane

AbstractBiopropane made by hydrogenating vegetable or animal oil/fat is being commercialized as a biofuel alternative to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Its carbon footprint has been calculated from field to tank, using public data for each process in the supply chain, for six main feedstocks: palm oil, palm oil fatty acid distillate, tallow, used cooking oil, rape oil, and soy oil. Scenarios have been applied to the calculations using four main variables: allocation method, i.e., economic or energy; methane capture at the oil mill (or not); application of indirect land‐use change (or not); and classification of the feedstock as a residue (or not). HVO biopropane's carbon footprint varies, depending on the feedstock and the four variables, from as low as 5 g CO2e/MJ to as high as 102 g. In most cases, this qualifies for government support, i.e., financial credits and biofuel mandates enacted by EU member states under the Renewable Energy Directive. © 2017 The Authors. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining published by Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Evaluating the environmental impacts of bio-hydrogenated diesel production from palm oil and fatty acid methyl ester through life cycle assessment

Bio-hydrogenated diesel (BHD) produced from two different raw materials—palm oil fatty acid distillate and fatty acid methyl ester—was compared in terms of environmental impacts using the life cycle assessment (LCA) technique with the SimaPro 7.3 software. The energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission, and environmental impacts reported in unit points (Pt.) were assessed using the Eco-indicator 95, IPCC 2007, and CML 2 Baseline 2000 methodologies, respectively. The functional unit was 1 kg of biofuel product. The system boundary defined included three main processes in the bio-hydrogenated diesel production phase—catalytic hydroprocessing, separation, and upgrading. The results indicated that the energy consumption of bio-hydrogenated diesel production from palm oil fatty acid distillate was 1.26 times (or 9.69 × 10−3 MJ higher) that of the bio-hydrogenated diesel production from fatty acid methyl ester. On the other hand, the greenhouse gas emission from bio-hydrogenated diesel production from palm oil fatty acid distillate was 2.29 times lower than that from fatty acid methyl ester due to the palm trees absorption of CO2 for photosynthesis being greater than the amount released into the atmosphere during the oil palm cultivation stage. The major contributor was crude palm oil as a feedstock to produce either palm oil fatty acid distillate (physical refining) or fatty acid methyl ester (transesterification), which were about 93% and 84% of the total energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission, respectively. The results of environmental impacts showed that the bio-hydrogenated diesel production from palm oil fatty acid distillate was 1.37 times (2.05 × 10−12 Pt) greater than that from fatty acid methyl ester. Consumption of palm oil fatty acid distillate and fatty acid methyl ester in both processes made the largest contribution to most environmental impacts (99% of the total impact score was from both processes). The main impacts of both bio-hydrogenated diesel production from palm oil fatty acid distillate and fatty acid methyl ester were the terrestrial ecotoxicity potential, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity potential, and marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential. An essential factor which caused these impacts was the use of crude palm oil during the production of palm oil fatty acid distillate and fatty acid methyl ester. Therefore, fatty acid methyl ester was found to be a suitable raw material for bio-hydrogenated diesel production based on the economic evaluation and the lower environmental impacts during the production stage. This present work highlights the benefit of by-products as feedstock for alternative fuel production in order to increase the by-product marketing value.

Effects of fat content and source as well as of calcium and potassium content in the diet on fat excretion and saponification, litter quality and foot pad health in broilers

Summary Fat content of poultry diets and a formation of soaps from fatty acids and macro minerals in the intestinal tract of animals are often discussed in regard to nutrient digestibility and energy value, but the information about the effects on litter quality and foot pad health is limited. Therefore this study was conducted to investigate the potential impact of fat and soap contents in broilers’ excreta on dry matter (dm) content of excreta and litter as well as on development and severity of foot pad dermatitis. In a first experiment a total of 200 broilers (in two consecutive trials) were housed in floor pens littered with wood shavings and were fed diets differing in fat content (55 or 110Â g/kg dm), fat source (mixed fat, palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate, PFAD) and also in dietary calcium and potassium levels (7.5/6.0 resp. 15.0/14.5Â g/kg dm). Samples of excreta and litter were taken and foot pad health of the birds was recorded weekly according to a macroscopic score of 0 to 8. In a second experiment with 104 broilers half of the birds were exposed daily for 8 hours to litter (wood shavings) enriched with a mix of two soaps (potassium oleat and stearate, 50:50) in a concentration of 2 resp. 5% at different dm contents of the litter (85 resp. 65%). A weekly macroscopically assessment of the foot pad health was done. In Trial 1 high dietary fat contents or the use of palm oil or PFAD led to considerable fat losses via excreta (up to 134Â g/kg dm). If there were, in parallel, high dietary contents of Ca and K, a remarkable saponification was observed (up to 92.9Â g/kg dm), but this did not go along with lower litter quality or higher FPD scores. Also in the 2nd experiment the exposure to high soap contents in the litter did not have negative effects on foot pad health. Only slight lesions were observed over the experimental period. As a result of this study it can be assumed that the formation of soaps in the intestinal tract of broilers from fatty acids and minerals did not have marked influences on the development and severity of foot pad dermatitis. Overall, foot pad health was enhanced by high fat excretion, which might be due to the binding of potassium in soaps. Thus, it could not be absorbed – and therefore would not be excreted via urine and cause poorer litter quality. The observed effect of high dietary fat contents on fat and soap excretion may give reason for a critical assessment regarding energy value and costs, when fat is used at higher dietary levels, especially when substituting cereal energy.

Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate Using Heterogeneous Sulfonated Microcrystalline Cellulose Catalyst and Its Comparison with H2SO4 Catalyzed Reaction

The kinetics of esterification of palm oil fatty acid distillate (PFAD) with methanol was investigated using heterogeneous carbonized microcellulose sulfonic acid as catalyst and compared with the sulfuric acid catalyzed reaction, considering liquid–liquid phase split during the progress of the reaction in both the cases. The solid catalyst was characterized for acidity, thermal stability, and surface area. The residual glycerides in the PFAD were hydrolyzed prior to the esterification using sulfuric acid as a catalyst. The esterification reaction was investigated for the effect of catalyst loading, temperature, and free fatty acids (FFA) to methanol ratio, on the conversion of the fatty acids. Sulfuric acid was a better catalyst than sulfonated microcrystalline cellulose, but the solid catalyst provides the ease of recovery. The sulfonated microcrystalline cellulose rendered good conversion and reusability for esterification. The process engineering aspects of the esterification reaction are also briefly discussed.

Diesel-like hydrocarbon production from hydroprocessing of relevant refining palm oil

This paper demonstrates the initiated use of relevant refining palm oil for bio-hydrogenated diesel production. The conversions of crude palm oil (CPO) and its physical refining including degummed palm oil (DPO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to diesel fuel by hydroprocessing were studied. The effects of operating parameters (i.e. reaction time, operating temperature, and pressure) and catalyst (i.e. Pd/C and NiMo/γ-Al2O3) were examined in order to determine suitable operating condition for each feedstock. It was found that the hydroprocessing of CPO with Pd/C catalyst at 400°C, 40bar, and reaction time of 3h provides the highest diesel yield of 51%. When gum which contains phospholipid compounds is removed from CPO, namely DPO, the highest diesel yield of 70% can be obtained at a shorter reaction time (1h). In the case of PFAD, which consists mainly of free fatty acids, a maximum diesel yield of 81% could be observed at milder conditions (375°C with the reaction time of 0.5h). The main liquid products are n-pentadecane and n-heptadecane, having one carbon atom shorter than the corresponding fatty acids according to decarboxylation/decarbonylation pathways. Pd/C catalyst shows good catalytic activity for fatty acid feedstocks but becomes less promising for triglyceride feedstocks when compared to NiMo/γ-Al2O3.

COMPARISON STUDY OF EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION TEMPERATURE DATA IN THE ESTERIFICATION PROCESS OF PALM FATTY ACID DISTILLATE (PFAD) IN A FLUIDISED REACTOR

Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is a by-product from palm oil refinery process and normally used as ingredient of making candles, soap and others. Recently, many researchers have been carried out to diversify the utilisation of PFAD in industry. Among others is the enzimatically production of sugar ester using PFAD as substrate. However, limited kinetic and simulation data hindered the effort of large scale production. Hence, this study was executed to determine the kinetic parameters of the esterification process based on the simplified Ping-pong Bi-Bi model under the temperature range of 30°C ~ 45°C where immobilised lipase (Lipozyme 1M) was used as biocatalyst and isopropyl alcohol was used as solvent. The reaction was conducted in a cylinder resemble a fluidised reactor. Kinetic parameters derived from the experiments were used to simulate the production of sugar ester. The optimum temperature for the production of sugar ester was found to be at 40°C. The experimental results deviate slightly from the simulation results with error percentage of less than 11%. The model can be used to predict the production of sugar ester when the concentrations of the reactants are varied.

Effects of substituting dietary fish oil with crude palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate on growth, muscle fatty acid composition and the activities of hepatic lipogenic enzymes in snakehead (Channa striatus, Bloch 1793) fingerling

Three diets were formulated to be iso-nitrogenous (450 g kg−1), iso-lipidic (65 g kg−1) and iso-energetic (18.5 KJ g−1), varying only in their lipid sources and designated as 100% fish oil (FO), 100% crude palm oil (CPO) and 100% palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). Feed were hand fed to homogenous groups of 12 Channa striatus fingerlings (mean weight 3.5 ± 0.3 g) per tank in triplicate for 12 weeks, in a recirculation system. The growth performance and feed intake in the CPO and PFAD treatments were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those in the fish fed the control diet (FO), respectively, whereas the feed conversion ratio was better in PFAD than that in the other treatments respectively. The biological indices monitored (hepatosomatic index and viscerosomatic index) as well as carcass yield did not vary significantly among all the treatments respectively. The muscle fatty acid (FA) profile of fish was influenced by the composition of the diets fed, whereas no differences were recorded in the activities of the hepatic lipogenic enzymes monitored (fatty acid synthetase, citrate cleavage enzyme and malic enzyme). Whole-body proximate composition analysis revealed that PFAD treatment, compared with others, contained significantly higher protein and ash, but lower lipid contents, although the muscle content of these nutrients was similar among all the treatments. Based on the results of this trial, CPO and PFAD could be used to partially substitute FO in the diet for C. striatus fingerling, to achieve good growth performance without any negative effects or compromising the muscle n-3 FA composition (especially in the docosa hexaenoic acid and eicosa pentaenoic acid content).

Enzymatic Biodiesel Synthesis Using a Byproduct Obtained from Palm Oil Refining

An alternative route to produce biodiesel is based on esterification of free fatty acids present in byproducts obtained from vegetable oil refining, such as palm oil fatty acid distillate (PFAD). PFAD is a byproduct of the production of edible palm oil, which contains 96 wt.% of free fatty acids. The purpose of this work was to study biodiesel synthesis via esterification of PFAD with methanol and ethanol, catalyzed by commercial immobilized lipases (Novozym 435, Lipozyme RM-IM, and Lipozyme TL-IM), in a solvent-free system. The effects of reaction parameters such as type of lipase, enzyme amount, type of alcohol, alcohol amount, and enzyme reuse were studied. Fatty acid conversion of 93% was obtained after 2.5 h of esterification reaction between PFAD and ethanol using 1.0 wt.% of Novozym 435 at 60°C.

Synthesis of methyl esters from relevant palm products in near-critical methanol with modified-zirconia catalysts

The transesterification and esterification of palm products i.e. crude palm oil (CPO), refined palm oil (RPO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) under near-critical methanol in the presence of synthesized SO 4–ZrO 2, WO 3–ZrO 2 and TiO 2–ZrO 2 (with various sulfur- and tungsten loadings, Ti/Zr ratios, and calcination temperatures) were studied. Among them, the reaction of RPO with 20%WO 3–ZrO 2 (calcined at 800 °C) enhanced the highest fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield with greatest stability after several reaction cycles; furthermore, it required shorter time, lower temperature and less amount of methanol compared to the reactions without catalyst. These benefits were related to the high acid-site density and tetragonal phase formation of synthesized WO 3–ZrO 2. For further improvement, the addition of toluene as co-solvent considerably reduced the requirement of methanol to maximize FAME yield, while the addition of molecular sieve along with catalyst significantly increased FAME yield from PFAD and CPO due to the inhibition of hydrolysis reaction.

Isolation and Characterization of a Burkholderia sp. USM (JCM15050) Capable of Producing Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) from Triglycerides, Fatty Acids and Glycerols

A consortium of microorganisms from oil polluted wastewater sample was cultivated to promote polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) accumulation before subjecting the mixed cultures to sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation. This resulted in the fractionation of the bacterial cells according to their physical features such as size, morphology and/or densities. An isolate was identified as Burkholderia sp. USM (JCM15050), which was capable of converting palm oil products [crude palm kernel oil (CPKO), palm olein (PO), palm kernel acid oil (PKAO), palm stearin (PS), crude palm oil (CPO), palm acid oil (PAO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)], fatty acids and various glycerol by-products into poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) [P(3HB)]. Up to 70 and 60 wt% of P(3HB) could be obtained when 0.5%(v/v) CPKO and glycerol was fed, respectively. Among the various fatty acids tested, lauric acid followed by oleic acid and myristic acid gave the best cell growth and PHA accumulation. Compared to Cupriavidus necator H16, the present isolate showed better ability to grow on and produce PHA from various glycerol by-products generated by the palm oil industry. This study demonstrated for the first time an isolate that has the potential to utilize palm oil and glycerol derivatives for the biosynthesis of PHA.

Biocatalytic ethanolysis of palm oil for biodiesel production using microcrystalline lipase in tert-butanol system

Abstract Biocatalytic synthesis is a promising environmentally friendly process for the production of biodiesel, a sustainable alternative fuel from renewable plant resources. In order to develop an economical heterogeneous biocatalyst, protein-coated microcrystals (PCMCs) were prepared from a commercial enzyme preparation from a recombinant Aspergillus strain expressing Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase and used for synthesis of biodiesel from palm olein by ethanolysis. Reaction parameters, including catalyst loading, temperature, and oil/alcohol molar ratio have been systematically optimized. Addition of tert -butanol was found to markedly increase the biocatalyst activity and stability resulting in improved product yield. Optimized reactions (20%, w/w PCMC-lipase to triacylglycerol and 1:4 fatty acid equivalence/ethanol molar ratio) led to the production of alkyl esters from palm olein at 89.9% yield on molar basis after incubation at 45 °C for 24 h in the presence of tert -butanol at a 1:1 molar ratio to triacylglycerol. Crude palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate were also efficiently converted to biodiesel with 82.1 and 75.5% yield, respectively, with continual dehydration by molecular sieving. Operational stability of PCMC-lipase could be improved by treatment with tert -butanol allowing recycling of the biocatalyst for at least 8 consecutive batches with only slight reduction in activity. This work thus shows a promising approach for biodiesel synthesis with microcrystalline lipase which could be further developed for cost-efficient industrial production of biodiesel.