Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Research Articles

Effect of dietary fat source and concentration on feed intake, enteric methane and milk production in dairy cows

Dietary fat can be used in dairy cow nutrition to reduce enteric methane (CH4), but studies with multiple dietary fat concentrations are scarce. Among fat sources, rapeseed is easily accessible in Europe and North America, and palm kernel fat has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of ruminal methanogenesis. Forty-eight cows (half primiparous and half multiparous) were used in a 6 × 6 Latin square design, with 6 periods of 21 d each. Six treatments were used: a control, 3 fat concentrations (low, medium and high) of rapeseed (RS), and 2 fat concentrations (low and medium) of palm kernel fatty acids (PK). The total crude fat concentrations ranged from 3 to 7% of DM. The cows were fed the treatments as partial mixed ration, and they received additional concentrate from GreenFeed units (1 unit for 12 cows) used to measure CH4 production. Increased dietary crude fat concentration of both RS and PK reduced DMI. The reduction in DMI was stronger in cows fed medium concentration of PK than for any RS concentration, which was comparable to previous studies for both RS and PK. Digestibility of OM was highest at low fat concentration of both fat sources, and lowest at high RS concentration. Digestibility of NDF was reduced by 2 percentage units when cows were fed medium PK concentration instead of the control treatment. Rapeseed supplementation with dietary crude fat up to 5.7% of DM increased milk and energy corrected milk (ECM) yields, but the equivalent PK concentration reduced ECM. Increased fat supplementation decreased CH4 yield (g CH4/kg of DMI) linearly when RS was used, and quadratically when PK was used. Medium PK concentration reduced CH4 yield more than medium RS concentration, but there was no difference for CH4 intensity (g CH4/kg of ECM). Rapeseed fat supplementation with dietary crude fat above 5.7% of DM could reduce further CH4 yield, but fat supplementation was not accompanied by an increase in productivity. The fat source has to be accounted for when considering enteric methane reduction, as the PK provided stronger effect than RS, but the associated reduction in milk production did not support the use of PK for methane reduction.

Free fatty acid-rich oils as potential benign organic solvent for dyes removal in solvent extraction system

The extensive use of water in the textile industry results in the production of significant volumes of effluent-containing dyes, posing both economic and environmental concerns due to their harmful impact. Hence, the removal of dye from wastewater is very important for environmental protection and other aspects of well-being. Solvent extraction emerges as one of the promising methods used for dye removal. Nevertheless, the conventional organic phase formulation comprises an extractant, diluent, and modifier sourced from petroleum-based compounds, leading to environmental degradation. Thus, in this study, free fatty acid (FFA)-rich oils, i.e., Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Distillate (PKFAD) and Jatropha Oil (JO), were proposed as the green and benign organic solvent for the extraction of Crystal Violet-(CV) and Methylene Blue-(MB) from an aqueous solution. These FFA-rich oils act as reactive diluents due to the presence of FFA, which acts as an acidic extractant. Therefore, a new formulation of green sole-organic solvent without the addition of extractant and modifier was applied in this system. This study aimed to determine the best pH equilibrium for extracting CV and MB from different FFA-rich oils, i.e., PKFAD and JO. The results indicated the optimum extraction of CV is 95% at an equilibrium pH of 2.7 and 6.3 for PKFAD and JO, respectively. In comparison, the extraction of MB achieved 88% (pH 5.5) and 86% (pH 8.5) for PKFAD and JO, respectively. The stripping obtained a high removal percentage for both CV and MB, with 93% and 99%, respectively.

The effect of vacuum process on biodiesel production from Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Distillate

This study examines the operating pressure effect on the manufacture of biodiesel from Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Distillate (PKFAD) by using para-Toluene Sulfonic Acid (PTSA) catalyst. The operating pressures studied are the vacuum pressures of 70 kPa, 80 kPa, 90 kPa, and 100 kPa, which varied with PTSA concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, and the molar ratios of methanol and PKFAD are 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, and 10:1. Biodiesel production from PKFAD was carried out with reaction duration of 120 minutes and reaction temperature at 50 0C. The amounts of fatty acids converted to biodiesel were calculated based on the initial and acid numbers after the esterification reaction. The results show that a vacuum pressure of 70 kPa to 100 kPa provides a conversion above 96% for all catalyst concentrations and all methanol and PKFAD molar ratios. The highest conversion of PKFAD to biodiesel of 98.6% is obtained at an operating pressure of 80 kPa, a catalyst concentration of 25%, and the molar ratio of methanol and PKFAD is 10:1. The biodiesel characteristics obtained in this study have met the standards of the American Society for Testing Materials.

Palm kernel fatty acid distillate as a benign organic solvent for Cu(II) extraction: stoichiometry, thermodynamic and structural studies

Palm kernel fatty acid distillate as a benign organic solvent for Cu(II) extraction: stoichiometry, thermodynamic and structural studies

Palm kernel fatty acid distillate-based bulk liquid membrane for Cu(II) separation: Design and its operating parameters

This study focus on the development of palm kernel fatty acid distillate (PKFAD) based on a bulk liquid membrane (BLM) as a green membrane for the separation of Cu(II) from wastewater. PKFAD was used as a sole membrane solution without the addition of extractant and/or modifier, which reduced the consumption of hazardous chemicals and favoured the environment. The effects of design (number of stirrer blades and baffles) and operating (stirring speed, buffer solution concentration, and operating time) parameters on the simultaneous extraction and stripping of Cu(II) across PKFAD-based BLM, as well as its overall recovery were investigated to get optimal metal ions recovery. To examine the practical applicability, the selectivity of PKFAD-based BLM in separating Cu(II) was tested using electroplating industry wastewater. The results showed high percentages of extraction (93%), stripping (94%), recovery (87%), and enrichment factor (1.74) of Cu(II) using the best design (four stirrer blades and no baffles) and operating (stirring speed of 220 rpm, buffer solution concentration of 0.2 M, and operating time of 7 h) parameters of PKFAD-based BLM. The separation factor values of ≥1 for Cu(II) over the coexisting metal ions from actual electroplating wastewater have been accomplished with PKFAD-based BLM. Hence, PKFAD-based BLM is a potential BLM with a sole green membrane phase for separating Cu(II) selectively from wastewater.

Green extraction of gold(III) and copper(II) from chloride media by palm kernel fatty acid distillate

This work aimed to investigate the capability of palm kernel fatty acid distillate (PKFAD) as a green extractant for gold(III) and copper(II) from chloride media. The equilibrium pH (pHeq)-extraction isotherms of PKFAD for gold(III) and copper(II) from single-metal media (without and with an inert salt), extraction selectivity of PKFAD for gold(III) over copper(II) from binary-metal media, and the stripping of gold(III) and copper(II) from loaded PKFAD using different stripping agents were investigated. The existence of extracted species in loaded PKFAD and their extraction mechanisms were also verified and evaluated. The results revealed that PKFAD could extract both gold(III) (up to 99%) and copper(II) (up to 92%) at distinct pHeq without and with an inert salt, with the highest extraction selectivity for gold(III) over copper(II) achieved at pHeq 2. The highest stripping of gold(III) (76%) and copper(II) (95%) from loaded PKFAD was accomplished with 1 M thiourea-0.5 M hydrochloric acid solution and 2 M formic acid, respectively. Hence, PKFAD had shown great promise as a green extractant for gold(III) and copper(II) from chloride media.

Synthesis of ISO Grade 46 and 68 Biolubricant from Palm Kernel Fatty Acids

Bio-based lubricant is crucial to be developed considering the toxicity risk, climate change, energy security, and green-environmental approach. Palm kernel fatty acids based biolubricants were synthesized by the homogeneous acid-catalyzed esterification reaction between palm kernel fatty acids with selected polyhydric alcohols; trimethylolpropane (TMP), di-trimethylolpropane (Di-TMP), and pentaerythritol (PE). The reaction optimization is done using a D-optimal design based on four parameters; the ratio of reactants, reaction time, reaction temperature, and catalyst loading. The optimum yield range between 80 and 87%, with more than 93% the selectivity of biolubricant products. The chemical structures of synthesized Palm kernel fatty acids-based biolubricants were characterized and confirmed using FTIR, NMR (1H and 13C) spectroscopies, and GC-FID chromatography. The FTIR spectra of palm kernel fatty acids-based biolubricants products clearly showed the peaks of C=O and C–O of the ester group at 1741-1740 cm-1 and 1234-1152 cm-1, respectively. Furthermore, 1H NMR spectra confirmed the ester group's proton chemical shift (-CH2-O-) at 3.96-4.11 ppm. The 13C NMR spectra confirmed the carbon chemical shifts of ester carbonyl (C=O) signals at 173.5-173.2 ppm. The results for lubrication properties have shown that the palm kernel fatty acids based biolubricants have low-temperature properties with pour points value in the range of -5 to -10 °C, a high flash point of 320-360 °C, a high viscosity index (VI) of 140.86-154.8, the kinematic viscosity of 41.76-87.06 cSt (40 °C), 8.73-14.77 cSt (100 °C), and thermal stability over 210 °C. All synthetic lubricants are categorized as ISO 46 (TMP triester) and ISO 68 (Di-TMP tetraester and PE tetraester).

Improvement of Heavy Oil Recovery by Nonionic Surfactant/Alcohol Flooding in Light of the Alkane Carbon Number and Interfacial Tension Properties

In this work, we prepared nonionic surfactants from waste cooking oil materials. Hydrolysis was carried out for palm and palm kernel waste cooking oils to get a mixture of free fatty acids. The mixture of free acids was esterified with sorbitan and then ethoxylated at different ethylene oxide units. Two surfactants exhibited promising surface-active properties among the six prepared surfactants based on the results of surface tension. The interfacial tension (IFT) around the critical micelle concentration was measured against a series of n-hydrocarbon to detect the minimum alkane carbon number (ACN) (Πmin) for each of these surfactants. The effect of normal and branched alcohols on Πmin was also studied to design the surfactant/alcohol mixture for the chemical flooding process. From the results of IFT, the ethoxylated ester derivatives of palm kernel fatty acids (EPK-20) exhibited minimum IFT γmin (0.06 mN m–1) at Πmin equal to 12, and the ethoxylated ester derivatives of palm fatty acids (EP-40) achieved γmin equal to 0.09 mN m–1 at Πmin of 10. Branched alcohols shifted Πmin to a higher value to reach the equivalent ACN of the crude oil and decrease the IFT to lower values. The flooding process showed that the maximum oil recovery was obtained by EPK-20 (54.2% when used purely and 66.2% when used with isoamyl alcohol). In comparison, EP-40 exhibited that oil recovery equals 46% without alcohol and 46.4% with iso-butanol alcohol. The results were interpreted and discussed based on interfacial properties, wettability alteration, and the ACN.

WITHDRAWN: Optimization by D-optimal design for the synthesis of crude palm kernel fatty acids pentaerythritol tetraester based green biolubricant

This article has been withdrawn at the request of the author(s) and/or editor. The Publisher apologizes for any inconvenience this may cause.

Synthesis and optimization by D-optimal design of tetraester-based green biolubricant from Malaysian crude palm kernel fatty acids

The biolubricant term applies to all lubricants that biodegrade rapidly and which are non-toxic for human beings and aquatic habitats. Polyol esters-based biolubricants are preferable for all applications that not present risks to the environment due to it biodegradable manner. In this work, polyol ester-based biolubricant was synthesized through homogeneous acid-catalysed esterification of crude palm kernel fatty acids (CPKFAs) with polyhydric alcohol di-trimethylolpropane (di-TMP). The esterification process was optimized via D-optimal design of response surface methodology. The optimum condition for maximum yield and selectivity was observed at 5:1 M ratio of CPKFAs to di-TMP, 5.6 h of reaction time, 156 °C of reaction temperature, and 1.5% of H2SO4 respectively. The optimum esterification process produced 83.2 ± 0.5% yield of crude palm kernel fatty acids di-trimethylolpropane (CPKFAs-di-TMPTE) with 92.7 ± 0.5% tetra-ester selectivity. The chemical structure and ester composition of synthesised tetra-ester were characterized by using FTIR, NMR (1H and 13C) spectroscopy and GC chromatography analysis techniques. CPKFAs-di-TMP tetra-ester recorded oxidative stability temperature at 252 °C, thermal stability at 431 °C, pour point at −5 °C, flash point at 360 °C, and viscosity index of 142. The CPKFAs-di-TMP recorded its tribological properties with small friction coefficient with Newtonian fluids behaviour. The synthesised CPKFAs-di-TMPTE green biolubricant was compatible with some selected commercial lubricants. It can be categorised as ISO VG 68 lubricant and plausible for various industrial applications in tropical countries at medium-range operation temperature.

Extraction of Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions by free fatty acid-rich oils as green extractants

Three types of free fatty acid (FFA)-rich oil, i.e. Jatropha oil (JO), palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) and palm kernel fatty acid distillate (PKFAD), were investigated into their potentiality as green extractants for Cu(II) ion extraction from aqueous solutions. The physicochemical properties of FFA-rich oils and their progressive phase separations with Cu(II)-containing aqueous solutions were studied. The effect of initial Cu(II) ion concentration on the extraction efficiency by different FFA-rich oils along with their pH-extraction isotherms and back-extraction (stripping) were also explored. The results revealed that PKFAD showed the most favorable physicochemical properties and phase separation behavior while achieving a high extraction efficiency (> 95%) among all the FFA-rich oils studied. Therefore, PKFAD is a prospective green exractant for Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions.

Parametric studies of Cu(II) ion extraction into palm kernel fatty acid distillate as a green organic solvent

Palm kernel fatty acid distillate (PKFAD), a processing residue from palm kernel oil refineries with a high amount of free fatty acids (80–90 wt%), was used as a green organic solvent for sustainable extraction of Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions in this work. The effects of various extraction parameters (equilibrium pH (pHeq), organic to aqueous phase (O:A) ratio, inert salt concentration, and temperature) on Cu(II) ion extraction by PKFAD were investigated and the optimum conditions were determined. The stripping of Cu(II) ions from Cu(II)-loaded PKFAD, as well as the loading capacity and reusability of PKFAD, was also studied. Results revealed that the highest Cu(II) ion extraction of 98% was achieved at pHeq of 4.7, O:A ratio of 0.5:1, inert salt concentration of 200 mM, and temperature of 25 °C, while a high Cu(II) ion stripping of 94% from Cu(II)-loaded PKFAD was accomplished with 1 M formic acid at O:A ratio of 1:1. Under the optimum extraction and stripping conditions, the estimated loading capacity and reusability of PKFAD were 7520 mg/L and 15 cycles minimum, respectively. Therefore, PKFAD is a potential green organic solvent for Cu(II) ions extraction from aqueous solutions.

Optimization of response surface methodology by D-optimal design for synthesis of food-grade palm kernel based biolubricant

This paper outlines the production of biolubricant base stock trimethylolpropane triester (TMPTE), which was derived from crude palm kernel fatty acids (CPKFAs). The effects of production variables including crude palm kernel fatty acids-to-trimethylolpropane molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time and the amount of H2SO4 catalyst on reaction performance were examined using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The optimum operating conditions occurred with a crude palm kernel fatty acids-to-trimethylolpropane molar ratio of 3.05:1, a reaction time of 5.98 h, a reaction temperature of 150 °C, and a catalyst amount of 1.01 wt%. Under the optimal conditions, a high yield percentage of 86.13 ± 0.7% trimethylolpropane triester was obtained with 99.13 ± 0.4% of trimethylolpropane triester composition. TMPTE showed a high viscosity index, a low pour point, a high flash point of 154.8, −10 °C, and 320 °C, respectively, coupled with a good oxidative stability at 245 °C. The synthesized product was categorized as ISO VG 46. TMPTE is possible to be used as a hydraulic fluid in food processing machinery based on compatible lubrication properties with the same grade commercial lubricants.

Influence of lauric acid on the susceptibility of chickens to an experimental Campylobacter jejuni colonisation.

Among the organic acids, lauric acid has shown a high level of in vitro activity against Campylobacter jejuni. The prevalence and intensity of C. jejuni excretion at slaughter often becomes lower with increasing age. In higher-aged broilers on organic farms which often use other breeds, in turn, the prevalence of C. jejuni is sometimes higher at slaughter. The question then arises as to whether a diet with higher lauric acid concentrations, the age alone or the genetic breed might have an effect in the spread and intensity of an experimental C. jejuni infection in vivo. Therefore, two complete diets with or without 2% lauric acid from palm kernel fatty acids were offered to 450 chickens (ten subgroups à 15 birds, repetitions: n = 3) of two broiler and two layer breeds (Ross 308, Hubbard JA 757, Lohmann Dual and Lohmann Brown-Classic). All breeds were reared for 42 days, Lohmann Brown-Classic also for about 98 days. Twenty-one days before dissection, three seeder birds per subgroup were orally infected with a 1 mL inoculum of C. jejuni (4.46±0.35 log10 CFU/mL). Qualitative detection of C. jejuni in cloacal swabs was performed at days 2, 4, 7, 14 after inoculation and at dissection in all birds. Quantitative detection was performed on excreta samples of seeder birds at days 2, 11 and 17 after experimental challenge and on caecal samples of all birds at dissection. Two days after experimental inoculation, C. jejuni prevalence was higher in control birds without lauric acid supplementation (48.9% vs. 39.6%; P = 0.0462). Depending on age, two days after inoculation the C. jejuni prevalence in young Lohmann Brown-Classic chickens was significantly lower (37.8% vs. 61.1%) whereas at dissection it was higher (99% vs. 67%). At day 2 after inoculation C. jejuni counts in the excreta of young Lohmann Brown-Classic were lower in comparison to those in old ones (log10 CFU/g: 3.30±2.68 vs. 5.24±1.56). Eleven (log10 CFU/g: 5.14±1.13 vs. 4.16±0.82) and 17 days after inoculatioin (log10 CFU/g: 3.77±2.02 vs. 1.72±1.87) it was the reverse situation. At dissection, the carriage of C. jejuni in caecal content was higher in younger than in older birds (log10 CFU/g: 8.57±0.46 vs. 6.66±1.43). An effect of genetic breed on C. jejuni prevalence was seen at dissection, this being lowest in Lohmann Dual chickens (91% vs. 98.9% in other breeds). At d 17 after challenge, C. jejuni counts in the excreta of young Lohmann Brown-Classic were lower in comparison to Ross 308 and Hubbard JA 757 (log10 CFU/g: 3.77±2.02 vs. 5.21±0.85 and 5.62±0.90). Lohmann Dual chickens showed an intermediary excretion, this being only significant lower compared to Hubbard JA 757 (log10 CFU/g: 4.31±0.89). In summary, the effect of lauric acid is limited to the initial phase after experimental inoculation. A higher age at infection seems to lead to a more rapid limitation of the infection. The excretion of C. jejuni appears to decrease more rapidly in layer breeds than in broiler lines after experimental inoculation.

An innovative method to produce drop-in fuel by alkaline earth-transition metals basic soap decarboxylation

Decarboxylation of metal soap is an emerging method to produce drop-in fuels as an alternative to the expensive hydrotreatment process. In this study, the Mg-Fe basic soap produced from palm kernel fatty acid had been successfully decarboxylated into jet-fuel type biohydrocarbons. The Mg-Fe basic soap with ratio of 8:2 mol was decarboxylated for 5 hours at atmospheric pressure and temperature varied up to 370°C; it produced a liquid product whose yield was around 60 %-weight. The resulting hydrocarbon product was a complex mixture consisted of normal paraffins in the range of carbon chain length C8 – C17, iso-and cyclo-paraffins, and various olefin products.

Sintesis Surfaktan Dietanolamida (Dea) Dari Metil Ester Olein Sawit Menggunakan Reaktor 25 Liter

Synthesis of diethanolamide (DEA) surfactant from palm olein methyl esters has the potential to commercialization. This surfactant product can reduce surface water tension from 72 dyne/cm to 33.82-32.06 dyne/cm in laboratory scale and the synthesis process was 50% cheaper than palm kernel fatty acids. So that, it is necessary to review the surfactant DEA production from palm olein methyl esters. The purpose of this research was to get the best synthesis process of DEA surfactant on 25 L/batch reactor. The synthesis process of DEA surfactants was divided into two stages. The first stage was conducted to determine duration and stirring rate of the DEA surfactant synthesis process. Then the best result in this first stage was continued in the second stage of the synthesis. The second stage was conducted by using an installed bulkhead in the reactor and some agitators for the DEA surfactant synthesis process. The lowest value of surface tension was the main parameter that was used for determining the best synthesis of DEA surfactant. Based on the first stage results, it was known that the best synthesis process was 4 hours with 100 rpm stirring rate. In the second stage, it was concluded that the best type of agitator was propeller. The best surface tension of DEA surfactant resulting from this research was 14.28 dyne / cm. The other parameters produced from the synthesis process were yield of 95.24%, viscosity of 245.41 cP, density of 0.973 g/mL, and pH of 11.1. Key words : DEA surfactant, diethanolamide, surface tension, synthesis process

Uniformity of Monomer Composition and Material Properties of Medium-Chain-Length Polyhydroxyalkanoates Biosynthesized from Pure and Crude Fatty Acids

Medium-chain-length (MCL) polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) homopolymers consist exclusively of 3-hydroxyalkanoate (3HA) monomers with 6–14 carbon atoms per repeating unit and comprise new types of flexible and transparent polyesters. In this study, MCL-PHA homopolymers were biosynthesized from pure fatty acids employing metabolically engineered Escherichia coli LSBJ. By increasing metal components in the culture medium, the yields of poly(3-hydroxydecanoate) [P(3HD)] and poly(3-hydroxydodecanoate) [P(3HDD)] were increased to 1.47 g/L and 0.42 g/L, respectively. The homopolymers were purified and processed into solvent-cast films for characterization. Drawing these films 3–4 times increased their tensile strength up to 45 MPa because of an enhancement of the degree of crystalline orientation. Additionally, these films exhibited high transparency regardless of the drawing treatment. To develop a more practical production process, a fatty acid mixture, palm kernel fatty acid distillate (PKFAD), was utilized as a p...

Clostridium perfringens challenge and dietary fat type modifies performance, microbiota composition and histomorphology of the broiler chicken gastrointestinal tract

Summary The aim of the present study was to examine how different dietary fat types affect performance, microbiota composition in gastrointestinal tract digesta as well as ileum histomorphology of broiler chickens challenged with virulent Clostridium perfringens strains. Birds were fed on diets containing either soybean oil (SO), palm kernel fatty acids distillers (PKFD) or beef tallow (BT). In the periods 1–28 d, 28–42 d and 1–42 d, neither C. perfringens challenge nor the dietary fat type affected the body weight gain of the broiler chickens. However, feed intake was significantly affected by dietary fat type throughout the experiment ( P < 0.04), being highest in birds fed on BT containing diets. The feed conversion ratio was affected by dietary fat type only in the period 1–28 d, being lowest in challenged as well as unchallenged birds fed on PKFD containing diets. Irrespective of the fat type, C. perfringens challenge caused a significant increase in Clostridiaceae, Bacteroides and Streptococus/Lactococcus counts in crop, ileum and caeca digesta. In general, the SO containing diets resulted in the lowest counts of the investigated microbial populations. Inclusion of PKFD increased villus length in the ileum ( P < 0.001).

Clostridium perfringens challenge and dietary fat type affect broiler chicken performance and fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract

The aim of the present work was to examine how different fats commonly used in the feed industry affect broiler performance, nutrient digestibility and microbial fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract of broiler chickens challenged with virulent Clostridium perfringens strains. Two experiments were carried out, each including 480-day-old male broilers (Ross 308), which were randomly distributed to eight experimental groups using six replicate pens per treatment and 10 birds per pen. In Experiment 1, birds were fed diets containing soybean oil, palm kernel fatty acid distillers, rendered pork fat and lard. In Experiment 2, birds were fed diets containing rapeseed oil, coconut oil, beef tallow and palm oil. In both experiments, the birds were either not challenged or challenged with a mixture of three C. perfringens type A strains. Irrespective of the fat type present in the diet, C. perfringens did not affect broiler chicken body weight gain (BWG) and mortality in either of the two experiments. The BWG was affected by dietary fat type in both experiments, indicating that the fatty acid composition of the fat source affects broiler growth performance. In particular, the inclusion of animal fats tended to improve final BW to a greater extent compared with the inclusion of unsaturated vegetable oils. In Experiment 2, irrespective of the dietary fat type present in the diet, C. perfringens challenge significantly impaired feed conversion ratio in the period from 14 to 28 days (1.63 v. 1.69) and at 42 days (1.65 v. 1.68). In both experiments apparent metabolizable energy values were affected by dietary fat type. Irrespective of the fat type present in the diet, C. perfringens challenge decreased the digesta pH in the crop and ileum, but had no effect in cecal contents. Moreover, in Experiment 1, total organic acid concentration in the ileum was two to three times lower on soybean oil diets as compared with other treatments, indicating that C. perfringens as well as dietary fat type significantly affects microbiota activity in the broiler chicken gastrointestinal tract.

Production of medium chain glycerides from coconut and palm kernel fatty acid distillates by lipase-catalyzed reactions

Medium chain glycerides (MCGs) containing C 8:0 and C 10:0 fatty acids is very much important for medicinal and nutritional applications. Coconut and palm kernel fatty acid distillates (FADs) can be utilized to produce MCGs by a combination of lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis and esterification reactions. The neutral glycerides present in coconut and palm kernel FADs are hydrolyzed by Candida rugosa lipase. The hydrolysates were then subjected to steam distillation under vacuum (at 120–140 °C) to get fractions rich in medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs). The fractions, from coconut and palm kernel FADs (75.2 and 76.2% MCFAs, respectively), were esterified with Rhizomucor miehei (Lipozyme RM IM) lipase to produce MCGs. Products from coconut FAD contained 64.7–67.5% diacylglycerol (DG), followed by 18.8–22.9% monoacylglycerol (MG) and 9.8–9.3% triacylglycerol (TG). Similarly, products from palm kernel FAD contained 63.5–66.7% DG, 19.1–23.6% MG and 9.5–10.1% TG.