Palm Kernel Cake Research Articles

The Characterization of Pastures by Grazing Cycle and Evaluation of Supplementation with Agro-Industry Co-Products on the Performance of Buffaloes in the Humid Tropics.

The objective was to characterize the pastures by grazing cycle, as well as to evaluate the performance of buffaloes in intensive rotational grazing in a silvopastoral system in the eastern Amazon supplemented with agro-industry co-products in order to characterize the grazing cycles, the composition of the fractions, and the carcass yield. Fifteen non-castrated, crossbred water buffaloes (Murrah × Mediterranean) were used. All animals used in the study were clinically healthy and weighed approximately 458 kg. The animals were grazed in a single group, and supplementation (1% of live weight-LW/day) was divided into three treatments: control (control-conventional ingredients); Cocos nucifera coconut cake (Cocos nucifera) (coconut cake-70%); and palm kernel cake (Guinean elaeis) (palm kernel cake-70% palm kernel cake). The chemical composition of the forage is different in each part of the plant, with higher protein values in the leaves (11.40%) and higher acid detergent fiber (ADF) values in the stems (50.03%). Among the ingredients of the supplement, corn has the highest percentage of indigestible protein (35.57%), most of the protein in palm kernel cake is B3 (49.11%), and in Coco, B2 (51.52%). Mombasa grass has a higher percentage of B3 and B2 proteins; the indigestible fraction is lower in the leaves (17.16%). The leaf/stem ratio also varied between grazing cycles, being better in the second cycle (2.11%) and with an overall average of 1.71. Supplement consumption varied between cycles and was higher in the control treatment, with an overall mean of 4.74. There was no difference in daily weight gain and carcass yield, with an average of 1 kg/day and 49.23%, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that including supplements based on by-products from the coconut and palm oil agro-industries promotes performance and carcass yields compatible with conventional supplements. Their use reduces production costs, optimizes the utilization of forage mass, enhances the sustainability of the production chain, and, therefore, is recommended.

The Use of Enzymatic Pre-digestion of Fermented Palm Kernel Cake in the Laying Hens Diet on Production Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, Egg Quality, and Egg Chemical Content

The Use of Enzymatic Pre-digestion of Fermented Palm Kernel Cake in the Laying Hens Diet on Production Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, Egg Quality, and Egg Chemical Content

Effects of replacing wheat bran with palm kernel cake or fermented palm kernel cake on the growth performance, intestinal microbiota and intestinal health of tilapia (GIFT, Oreochromis niloticus).

A nine-week feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of replacing wheat bran (WB) with palm kernel cake (PKC) or fermented palm kernel cake (FPKC) on the growth performance, intestinal microbiota and intestinal health of genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT, Oreochromis niloticus) (initial weight 7.00 ± 0.01 g). Eleven isonitrogenous and isolipidic experimental diets were formulated by replacing 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of dietary WB with PKC or FPKC. Replacement of WB with PKC concentrations up to 80% had no significant effect on the growth rate of tilapia or feed utilisation (p > 0.05). FPKC improved the growth performance of tilapia, with optimum growth achieved at 40% replacement level (p < 0.05). Complete replacement with PKC significantly decreased the activity of lipase and trypsin, and reduced the height of muscularis and the height of villus (p < 0.05). However, FPKC significantly increased amylase activity and villus height (p < 0.05). The apparent digestibility of dry matter and energy decreased linearly with increasing levels of PKC substitution, while FPKC showed the opposite trend (p < 0.05). PKC replacement of WB by 20% significantly reduced serum diamine oxidase activity and endothelin levels and increased intestinal tight junctions (p < 0.05). However, FPKC significantly decreased diamine oxidase activity and increased intestinal tight junctions (p < 0.05). PKC completely replaced WB, up-regulating the expression of pro-inflammatory factors (il-1β) (p < 0.05). When 40% of WB was replaced with FPKC, the expression of pro-inflammatory factors (il-1β and il-6) was decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Completely replacement of WB with PKC reduced the abundance of Firmicutes and Chloroflexi, while FPKC reduced the abundance of Fusobacteriota and increased the levels of Actinobacteriota. WB can be replaced with PKC up to 80% in tilapia feeds. However, the high percentage of gluten induced intestinal inflammation, impaired gut health, and reduced dietary nutrient utilisation and growth performance. Complete replacement of WB with FPKC promoted intestinal immunity. It also improved dietary nutrient utilisation and growth performance. However, the optimal growth was achieved at a 40% replacement level.

Carcass traits and meat quality of steers fed palm kernel cake as a replacement for grain sorghum

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of replacing grain sorghum (GS) with palm kernel cake (PKC) on the performance, carcass traits and meat quality of feedlot steers fed highgrain diets. Forty male ½ Holstein × ½ Nellore steers with an initial weight of 331.1 ± 36.2 kg, at 24 ± 2 months of age, were housed in group stalls (10 cattle/stall) where they received diets containing 0, 80, 160, or 240 g/kg PKC on a dietary dry matter basis. After 126 days, the animals were slaughtered and their carcass and meat evaluated. The replacement of GS with PKC did not influence empty body weight, carcass weight, carcass length, or carcass yield. However, the thickness of subcutaneous fat in the carcass decreased with the replacement of GS with PKC. The meat pH increased linearly, whereas there were no changes in cooking loss, shear force, lightness (L*), and fat or cholesterol contents in the meat of the steers. Partial replacement (41,57%) of GS with PKC is recommended, with an inclusion of up to 240 g/kg PKC in high-grain diets for steers.

Effect of Adding Palm Kernel Cake as a Substrate in Sclerotium rolfsii Inoculum

This research aims to determine the added palm kernel cake (PKC) level in the Sclerotium rolfsii inoculum. This research used an experimental method with a completely randomized design, four treatments, and five replications. The treatments were different substrate compositions, consisting of 100% bran (control), 90% bran + 10% PKC (P1), 85% bran + 15% PKC (P2), and 80% bran + 20% PKC (P3). The variables observed were cellulase and mannanase enzyme activities. The data obtained were analyzed statistically using a completely random design analysis of variance and continued with Duncan's multiple range tests if the treatment influenced the observed variables. The results showed that adding PKC as a substrate in making Sclerotium rolfsii inoculum had a significant effect (P&lt;0.01) on the activity of cellulase and mannanase enzymes. The best cellulase and mannanase enzyme activities were found in the 80% fine bran substrate composition + 20% PKC (P3), namely 16.02 U/mL and 7.81 U/mL.

Effects of fermented palm kernel cake in acidic and basic solutions on the performance of broiler chickens

Palm kernel meal is a by-product used very sparingly in poultry feed, due to its low nutritional value and gravelly appearance which could be improved by physical or chemical treatments. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of palm-kernel meal fermentation period on its nutritional value and growth performances of broiler chickens. The treatment consisted of fermenting palm kernel meal in a solution of humic acid (HA) or limestone, for 0, 2, 4 and 6 days. A control ration without palm kernel meal (R0) was compared to rations containing 15% unfermented palm kernel cake (R0+) and 15% fermented palm kernel cake in humic acid and limestone solutions. Each experimental ration was randomly assigned to 8 chicks in 4 experimental units of 02 chicks each, repeated 4 times per a 2×3 factorial design (2 fermentation modes and 3 fermentation period). The main results showed that fat content (13.04%) and metabolizable energy (5314 Kcal/kg DM) of palm kernel meal were higher when fermented in humic acid for 6 days. Fermentation in the basic solution for the same period (6 days) increased protein (13.52%) and cellulose (24.21%) contents. Whatever the fermentation mode, the digestive utilization coefficient of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein and crude cellulose increased with the fermentation period. Fermentation mode and period had no significant effect on growth performance. However, growth characteristics tended to improve with fermentation period. In conclusion, fermentation of palm kernel in humic acid and limestone solutions improved significantly (P&lt;0.05) the digestibility of all feed components, enabling chickens to take advantage of the nutrients for better growth performances.

Optimizing Performance of Madura Cattle in Smallholder Farms in Bangkalan Madura

Bangkalan Regency is located on Madura Island, which is one of the districts that has a population of 1,047,783 Madura cattle or around 21.7% and 5.99% of the national cattle population. Madura cattle are evenly distributed on Madura Island. Forages that are often used as feed are field grass and agricultural waste. In Vivo research uses concentrate to support the growth of beef cattle in Bangkalan Regency. The concentrate feed ingredients used consist of cassava waste, palm kernel cake, copra meal and tofu waste. The treatment given to Madura cattle consisted of four treatments.The feed treatments consisted of T1 (cassava waste 40% + copra meal 28% + palm kernel cake 30% + tofu waste 2%), T2 (cassava waste 42% + copra meal 36% + palm kernel cake 19% + tofu waste 3%), T3 (cassava waste 38% + copra meal 31% + palm kernel cake 27% + tofu waste 4%), and T4 (cassava waste 41% + copra meal 33% + palm kernel cake 21% + tofu waste 5%). Data on nutrient content and nutrients feed intake were analyzed using a randomized block design (RBD). The results show that local feed ingredients in Bangkalan Regency can influence nutrient content and nutrients feed intake.

Nanodots from Palm Kernel Cake

Palm kernel cake (PKC) is the remaining of a palm (Elaeis guineensis) kernel after its oil is separated. Oversupply of this biomass could become an environmental problem. Meanwhile, its moist property makes it suitable for a hydrothermal carbonization to afford added values for the biomass and overcome its potential environmental problem. From the hydrothermal processes of PKC with aquadest and nanobubbled water at 200 ºC for 6 hours, nanodots with the size around 50 nm were obtained. The nanodots may be decorated with amides on their surface. Upon illumination by an ultra-violet A wave (350 nm), the nanodots emitted lights with a maximum around blue region (450 nm). No significant differences were found between the nanodots from the hydrothermal carbonizations of PKC with aquadest and the ones from the hydrothermal carbonizations of the biomass with nanobubbled water. The fluorescence property of nanodots from PKC opens up the possibility for these carbon materials to be applied in agriculture. To the best of our knowledge, this kind of research has never been reported before.

Optimization of the process of preparation of liver pâtés and omental fat of lambs fed with lipid cakes.

The aim of this work was to optimize the process of elaborating liver pâtés and omental lamb fat and to evaluate the quality of the products. Livers and fats were obtained from lambs fed with diets composed of corn and soybean meal that were partially replaced by cupuaçu, tucumã and palm kernel cake. To prepare the pâtés, livers were baked for 20 minutes at 100°C, weighed, seasoned, crushed, packaged and pasteurized. The best formulation of the pâté was with 40% liver, 10% fat, 35% water, and pasteurized for 20 minutes at 65°C. The pâté from the livers of lambs fed with palm kernel cake obtained a higher caloric value of 193.05 kcal/100 g and all pâtés met the recommended microbiological quality. There was a significant effect (p< 0.05) of the diets on the aroma and texture of the liver pâtés of lambs fed corn and soybean meal and palm kernel cake, and these were 6.38 and 3.37, respectively. Thus, the pâtés can be considered an alternative to increase the options for consumption of liver from lambs, and also for adding commercial value to lamb viscera.

Effect of Creep Feed Formulated with Palm Kernel Cake and Tropical Forages on Growth Performance of Boer Crossbred Kids

Effect of Creep Feed Formulated with Palm Kernel Cake and Tropical Forages on Growth Performance of Boer Crossbred Kids

Nutrient Composition and Cell-Wall Structure of Palm Kernel Cake Supplemented with Enzymes

Nutrient Composition and Cell-Wall Structure of Palm Kernel Cake Supplemented with Enzymes

A Fixed-Bed Study on the Feedsorption of BSA Using PKC: Toward the Sustainable Agrosorption of Protein-rich Waste for Enhancing Low Nutritional-value Feed

Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), a by-product of Malaysia's palm oil industry, stands out as a sustainable and cost-efficient feed ingredient. However, its use is nutritionally limited for monogastric animals due to high fiber content and anti-nutritional factors. This groundbreaking study explores the innovative process of 'feedsorption'—a term we have coined under the broader concept of 'agrisorption'—to enhance the nutritional value of PKC. By adsorbing protein-rich agricultural, poultry, and farm animal wastes, represented by bovine serum albumin (BSA), we aim to elevate PKC's protein content. Through detailed experimentation involving varying bed depths (1 cm to 2 cm) and initial BSA concentrations (100 to 500 µg/mL) within fixed-bed columns, our findings reveal that increased bed depths significantly prolong breakthrough and exhaustion times, highlighting improved adsorption efficiency. Yet, depths beyond 1 cm pose a risk of clogging. Higher BSA concentrations were found to accelerate breakthrough, indicating a stronger driving force capable of overcoming mass transfer resistance. The Modified Dose Response (MDR) model outperformed the Thomas model in accurately predicting breakthrough curves across different conditions. This study not only confirms the feasibility of feedsorption to bolster the nutritional profile of low-quality feed using protein-rich waste but also introduces a promising avenue for enhancing sustainable livestock nutrition.

Effects of Climatic Conditions and Supplementation with Palm Cake on the Thermoregulation of Crossbred Buffaloes Raised in a Rotational Grazing System and with Natural Shade in Humid Tropical Regions.

In ruminants, diet composition has a positive correlation with heat production, which can influence thermoregulation, energy expenditure and, consequently, animal performance. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of climatic conditions and supplementation based on palm kernel cake, on the thermoregulation of crossbred buffaloes in the eastern Amazon. The research was carried out at Embrapa Amazônia Oriental (01°26' S and 48°24' W), Belém, Pará, and lasted 12 months (representing the entire year). Twenty-four buffaloes, females, with initial age and an average weight of 54 ± 7 months and 503.1 ± 23 kg, respectively, non-pregnant, non-lactating and clinically healthy were used, divided into four treatments based on the supplementation content of the palm cake (%DM) in relation to their body weight (%): 0, 0.25, 0.50 and 1.0. The animals were kept in paddocks with Brachiaria brizantha (cv. Marandu), in a rotating system, with water to drink and mineral salt ad libitum. Equipment was installed to record environmental data (temperature and relative humidity, dew point temperature, wet bulb and black globe) and physiological data: rectal temperature (RT); respiratory rate (RR); and body surface temperature (BST), recorded twice a day, always in the morning (6:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m.) and afternoon (12:00 p.m. to 1:00 p.m.) shifts, and were used to calculate the Globe Temperature and Humidity Index (GTHI). Supplementation did not influence the physiological variables of thermoregulation (p > 0.05). However, there were differences in the GTHI between the shifts, with higher means in the afternoon shift, especially in the less rainy period of the year, where the GTHI reached 92.06 ± 2.74 (p < 0.05). In all periods of the year, the mean values of RT, RR and BST were higher in the afternoon shift (p > 0.05). The respiratory rate (RR) is associated with the annual seasonality of the thermal waters, with higher averages in the afternoons of the rainy season. The positive correlation for rectal temperature, respiratory rate and body surface temperature indicated that buffaloes respond to thermal elevations in the atmosphere (afternoon period) and, consequently, reflect on the GTHI. Supplementation does not influence thermoregulation; the changes observed occurred in response to the region's thermal and rainfall conditions (mainly in the afternoon shift), with higher GTHI values.

Lambs supplemented with Amazonian oilseed co-products: Meat quality and fatty acid profile.

The Amazon has a wide variety of oilseeds that generate a huge amount of co-products with potential for use in animal nutrition. The objective was to use alternative resources (oilseed cakes) in the feeding of lambs to assign a sustainable destination to this biomass, and evaluate its influence on the quality and fatty acid (FA) profile of the meat. Twenty-four lambs, male, castrated, crossbred Dorper × Santa Inês, weighing 30 ± 1.3 kg of initial body weight, were distributed in a completely randomized design in 4 treatments (diets) with six replications (animals). The control diet (Control) contained corn and soybean meal as main ingredients, which were partially replaced in the other diets by cupuassu cake diet (Cup), palm kernel cake diet (Palm) and tucuma cake diet (Tuc). The inclusion of Amazon cakes influences the lipid (P = 0.02) and protein (P < 0.01) composition of meat (longissimus lumborum); reduces cooking losses (P < 0.01); influences the colors (L, a, b), chroma, and Hue Angle (P < 0.01); promotes changes in total FA composition and FA profile (P < 0.05); reduces hypocholesterolemic FA (h) (P = 0.01), but does not influence hypercholesterolemic (H) and indices h:H, AI and TI (P > 0.05). The inclusion of oilseed cakes influences the chemical composition, physical parameters, composition and fatty acid profile of the meat, but does not influence the indicators of atherogenicity, thrombogenicity and cholesterolemia.

COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE PLANT PROTEIN CAKES ON PERFORMANCE, NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY, HAEMATOLOGY, SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY AND PRODUCTION ECONOMICS OF WEANER RABBITS

This research was conducted to compare the effects of feeding three plant protein cakes, groundnut cake (GNC), cottonseed cake (CSC), and palm kernel cake (PKC) on performance, nutrient digestibility, haematology, serum biochemistry, and production economics of weaner rabbits. Twenty-four six weeks old, mixed-breed rabbits of both sexes were allotted into three groups randomly containing eight rabbits each. The treatment groups (T1, T2, and T3) were fed for five weeks on three different diets containing GNC, CSC, and PKC as protein sources respectively. Data generated were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. It was revealed that majority of the performance parameters were not affected (p&gt;0.05) except final body weight which differed significantly (p&lt;0.05) across the treatment groups. The ash contents of the diets also varied significantly (p&lt;0.05) amid other parameters of nutrient digestibility. The diets had no adverse effects on hematological and biochemical parameters, but total bilirubin, creatinine, and sodium were affected (p&lt;0.05). This study also revealed that CSC compared favorably with GNC in terms of growth performance and economics of rabbit production, while PKC had poor economic values for production. It was therefore suggested that the three cakes are non-toxic to the muscle, kidneys, and liver of rabbits at 17.43% inclusion level. This indicates that groundnut cake, cottonseed cake and palm kernel cake can be used as sources of protein in the diet of weaner rabbits without affecting the blood and serum biochemical parameters of weaner rabbits because the enzyme levels continued within the reference range of healthy rabbits.

Effects of compression pressure, biomass ratio and binder proportion on the calorific value and mechanical integrity of waste-based briquettes

Briquettes derived from organic waste offer a sustainable energy solution, yet those produced through the combination of palm kernel and decanter cakes remain inadequately researched. Hence, the impact of the proportion of biomass, compression pressure, and binder ratio on the calorific value and mechanical properties of the composite materials were investigated through response surface modelling. Under ideal circumstances, the utilization of bentonite clay and cardboard pulp binder resulted in a relaxation density maximum effect of 1527 kg/m3 and 1013 kg/m3, while yielding optimal calorific values of 24.22 MJ/kg and 29.09 MJ/kg correspondingly. The optimal shatter indices for both specimens were 104.5 % and 123.6 %, accompanied by water resistance capabilities of 99.7 % and 106.1 % correspondingly. Resistance to impact of cardboard pulp and bentonite clay binder were 772.9 % and 177.3 % respectively. The current study is the first to examine independent and dependent variables for these composite materials in sub-Saharan Africa using RSM.

Utilization of Minerals in Pregnant West African Dwarf Goats Fed Cassava Peel and Leaf Meal as a replacement for wheat offal and Palmkernel cake in a Guinea Grass Based Diet

Utilization of Minerals in Pregnant West African Dwarf Goats Fed Cassava Peel and Leaf Meal as a replacement for wheat offal and Palmkernel cake in a Guinea Grass Based Diet

Valorized Palm Kernel Cake and Bambaranut Meal Affects Amino Acids, Growth and Nutrient Utilization in African Catfish, &lt;i&gt;Clarias gariepinus&lt;/i&gt;

The high cost of fishmeal and plant protein like soybean has necessitated the search for alternative aqua feed ingredients like proteinous agro waste products. Agro waste are cheap and plausible alternative but lacks some essential amino acids and has several anti-nutritional factors (ANF) like phytic acid, non-starch polysaccharides, high fiber, and protease inhibitors. Solid-state fermentation of the agro wastes can reduce the ANF and improve the protein and nutritional values of feed ingredients. Palm kernel cake (PKC) is a byproduct of palm kernel oil production, and it is proteinous and abundant in Nigeria. Bambaranut meal (BNM) is a neglected proteinous legume high in methionine and lysine and is abundant and cheap. Freshly produced PKC and BNM were solid-state fermented for 5 days in a bioreactor using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and used to produce five novel diets. The inclusion levels of solid-state fermented PKC: BNM per diet were as follows: F1, 450:50, F2,350:150, F3,250:250, F4,150:350, and F5,50:450. There was a control diet labeled as feed F6 which was a control. A total of 270 African catfish fingerlings of average weights distributed as follows F1, 2.63±0.06g, F2, 2.70±0.13g, F3, 2.40±0.08g, F4, 2.30±0.05g and F5, 2.70±0.09g, were acclimatized for 7 days and stocked at 15 fish per 3 replicates aquaria per treatment feed. The catfish were fed ad libitum two times daily with the treatment feeds for 70 days. Culture water was changed daily. Catfish were weighed every 14 days. The catfish that received feed F4 (PKC:BNM;150:350g) had the best specific growth rate (SGR) of 4.43±0.06% day-1, lowest food conversion ratio (FCR) of 1.01±0.07 and highest protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 1.24. The catfish fed feed F3 (PKC: BNM) 250:250g, was next to F4 with SGR, Final weight, gut volume, and gut weight were all higher for catfish receiving feed F4 followed by those fed feed F2. There were no significant differences between the PER of catfish-fed diets F2, 0.39±0.03 and F3, 0.39±0.06. The lysine and methionine content of the feed increased with inclusion of FBNM than FPKC. In conclusion, solid state fermented BNM and PKC should be included in catfish feed for optimal growth and profitability.

Meat and carcass quality of weaner rabbits placed on three different plant protein-based diets

The study assessed the effect of replacing groundnut cake (GNC) with palm kernel cake (PKC) or cotton seed cake (CSC) on the meat and carcass characteristics of rabbits. Sixty mixed breed weaner rabbits of both sexes with an age range of eight to nine weeks old were randomly divided into three treatments 1, 2, and 3 of 20 rabbits per group. Rabbits in the group one (T1) served as the positive control and were fed GNC-based diet, while those in treatments two (T2) and three (T3) were fed PKC-, and CSC-based diets respectively. The results differed non-significantly (p&gt;0.05) in the final body weight and carcass quality of the rabbits in each group. Carcass evaluation varied non-significantly (p&gt;0.05) in terms of visceral (liver, lungs, hearts, and kidneys) and weights of primal cuts (neck, forelimbs, hindlimbs, chest, and back). Also, some of the meat’s physicochemical properties showed no difference. The meat ratios bone of groups fed PKC- and CSC-based diets were insignificant (p&gt;0.05) above the control. CSC significantly (p&lt;0.05) increased the moisture, while PKC significantly decrease the nitrogen and crude protein contents of the meat of experimental rabbits. This study suggests that rabbits could be raised on a diet formulated using CSC as a replacement for GNC, while a PKC-based diet tends to decrease the protein content of rabbit meat.

Lamb weight gain and reproductive performance of post-partum ewes supplemented with palm kernel cake and sexual stimulated by a ram

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of palm kernel cake and ram effect on reproductive activity of postpartum and lactating ewes. Twenty multiparous ewes, five to eleven days postpartum, were separated into four different treatments: control, control-ram, palm and palm-ram. Body weight, difference in body weight recorded between days 0 and 42 of the experiment, diameter of the largest follicle at day zero of the study, number of ewes bearing a corpus luteum and pregnancy rate were measured in ewes. Average daily weight gain was measured in lambs. There was no effect (p ≥ 0.05) of palm kernel supplementation, ram stimulation, or their interactions on the weights of ewes and lambs. A greater number of ewes with corpus luteum (p &lt; 0.05) were observed in ewes stimulated by rams than those not stimulated. The number of pregnant ewes was not affected by ram effect or palm kernel supplementation (p ≥ 0.05). In conclusion, the use of the ram effect increases the incidence of corpus luteum in postpartum and lactating ewes. In addition, palm kernel cake in the diet does not affect body weight of postpartum ewes and lambs.