Palm Fatty Acid Distillate Research Articles

Protective Effect of Food Products Enriched with Unsaponifiable Matter from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate on the Aorta of Hypercholesterolemic Rats

Antiatherogenic Effect of Almond Oil in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic RatsMona Anwar, Wafaa Ghoneim Shousha, Hatem A. El-mezayen, Raafat A wadallah, Maha El-Wassef, Naglaa M. Nazif and Mona A. El-bana

Biodiesel Synthesis from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate Using Tungstophosphoric Acid Supported on Cesium‐Containing Niobia

AbstractTungstophosphoric acid supported on cesium‐containing niobia (TPA/Csx/Nb2O5, x = 1.0–2.5) catalysts were prepared by a two‐step impregnation method, and their physico‐chemical properties were investigated. The initial studies on the esterification of oleic acid with methanol revealed that TPA/Cs ratio affected the acidity as well as the activity of the catalysts. Among the catalysts tested, TPA/Cs1.0/Nb2O5 exhibited the best performance. In addition, the efficiency of TPA/Cs1.0/Nb2O5 for biodiesel synthesis from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), a by‐product from palm oil industry, was demonstrated, and the reaction parameters were also evaluated. Over 90% yield of FAME was achieved, and the properties of the biodiesel obtained from PFAD met the standard requirements for biodiesel fuel. However, deactivation of the catalysts was observed, possibly due to structural transformation or organic residues blocking the active sites.

Sulfonated mesoporous ZnO catalyst for methyl esters production

The SO3H group-functionalized mesoporous zinc oxide catalyst (SO3HZnO) was synthesized in order to catalyze the esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) containing high free fatty acid (FFA∼90%). In this regard, a mesoporous zinc oxide catalyst was hydrothermally fabricated and further functionalized by post-sulfonation treatment to apply SO3H acid group on the mesopore walls. Structural, textural, physicochemical, thermal, and morphological properties of the synthesized catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), surface area analysis (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), ammonia temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The synthesized mesoporous SO3HZnO catalyst possessed unique characteristics such as high surface area of 305.62 m2g-1, an average pore diameter of 3.16 nm, pore volume of 0.12 cm3g-1, and high acid density of 1.72 mmolg−1. The optimum esterification conditions were found as 9:1 of methanol to oil molar ratio, 2 wt% of catalyst concentration, 120 °C of temperature, and 90 min of reaction time to obtained 95.60% yield of PFAD methyl esters. Additionally, the recyclability experiments revealed that the spent catalyst was highly potential to be recycled for seven consecutive runs without further treatment. Furthermore, some important fuel properties of generated PFAD methyl ester such as density, kinematic viscosity, water content, acid value, could-, pour-, and flash-point were compared well with those of EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 specifications.

Sulfonated mesoporous zinc aluminate catalyst for biodiesel production from high free fatty acid feedstock using microwave heating system

Abstract Methyl ester was derived from one-step esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) in presence of mesoporous SO3H–ZnAl2O4 solid acid catalyst using microwave irradiation heating system. The catalyst characteristics were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), temperature programmed desorption (TPD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The mesoporous SO3H–ZnAl2O4 catalyst possessed unique properties such as surface area of 376.26 m2 g−1, total pore volume of 0.16 cm3 g−1, an average pore diameter of 3.55 nm and an acid density of 2.10 mmol g−1. A sequence of experiments were carried out in order to assess the influence of reaction parameters as follows: catalyst concentration (0.5–3.0 wt%), methanol to oil molar ratio (3:1–15:1), reaction temperature (50–70 °C), and mixing intensity (200–500 rpm) for methyl ester production. The evaluation of the esterification was conducted by gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of the PFAD methyl ester at various reaction times. The highest FAME yield was achieved (94.59%) at 20 min under optimum esterification condition (catalyst concentration of 1.5 wt%, methanol to PFAD molar ratio of 9:1, reaction temperature of 60 °C, and mixing intensity of 300 rpm using microwave irradiation heating system. The recyclability experiments revealed that the synthesized catalyst was potential to stay stable for eight consecutive reaction runs with only 22.55% drop in ester synthesis. The quality of the produced ester was assessed by determination of some key fuel properties such as density, acid value, kinematic viscosity, water content, pour point, could point, and flash point. The PFAD methyl ester was establish to satisfy those of European (EN 14214) and American Standards for Testing Materials (ASTM) specifications.

Synthesis and Application of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate Based Alkyd Resin in Liquid Detergent

AbstractPalm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is the by‐product obtained during physical refining of crude palm oil, which mainly consists of free fatty acids along with minor amounts of glycerides, bioactive compounds such as tocopherols, tocotrienols, phytosterols, squalene, other hydrocarbons. In the present work, an eco‐friendly alkyd resin was prepared using sustainable feedstock such as PFAD along with rosin. The various physico‐chemical properties of PFAD‐based alkyd resin (PFAD‐AR) such as acid value, saponification value, viscosity and volatile matter were determined and compared to palm oil based alkyd resin (PO‐AR). The structural properties of the alkyd resins were investigated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopic techniques. The study presents the utilization of PFAD‐based alkyd resin with sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES) in the liquid detergent formulation. The performance properties of the PFAD‐based alkyd resin liquid detergent formulations such as surface tension, wetting power and detergency were comparable with palm oil based alkyd resin liquid detergent formulations and with commercial liquid detergent (CLD). Surface tensions of liquid detergent formulations varied from 20 to 30 mN/m with decrease in concentration. The foaming properties of alkyd resin based liquid detergents are reduced with the increase in the amount of alkyd resin polymer in the formulations. Therefore, it has potential application as a foam reducer in detergent for washing machines.

Production and characterization of rhamnolipid using palm oil agricultural refinery waste

In this research we assess the feasibility of using palm oil agricultural refinery waste as a carbon source for the production of rhamnolipid biosurfactant through fermentation. The production and characterization of rhamnolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 grown on palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) under batch fermentation were investigated. Results show that P. aeruginosa PAO1 can grow and produce 0.43gL−1 of rhamnolipid using PFAD as the sole carbon source. Identification of the biosurfactant product using mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of monorhamnolipid and dirhamnolipid. The rhamnolipid produced from PFAD were able to reduce surface tension to 29mNm−1 with a critical micelle concentration (CMC) 420mgL−1 and emulsify kerosene and sunflower oil, with an emulsion index up to 30%. Results demonstrate that PFAD could be used as a low-cost substrate for rhamnolipid production, utilizing and transforming it into a value added biosurfactant product.

Simulation of a Palm Fatty Acid Distillate‐Based Biodiesel Plant Using Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts

AbstractA continuous biodiesel production process from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is simulated in Aspen Plus for process engineering aspects emphasizing the critical points in the entire process. The production process involves acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis of residual glycerides of PFAD to additional free fatty acids (FFAs), followed by esterification of the FFAs with methanol for methyl ester production, biodiesel purification, and finally methanol recovery. A two‐phase kinetic model was employed with detailed operating conditions for both, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts to design the reactors and critical process units. The operating costs of the process using both catalysts are evaluated.

Post-functionalization of polymeric mesoporous C@Zn core–shell spheres used for methyl ester production

In the present study, the mesoporous carbon@zinc (C@Zn) core-shell spheres were hydrothermally synthesized, using polyethylene glycol (PEG) as the surfactant and d-glucose as the pore forming agent. Then, the post-sulfonation treatment was carried out to prepare polymeric mesoporous SO3H-ZnO catalyst. The physicochemical, structural, textural and morphological properties of the synthesized catalysts were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), surface area analysis (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller equation), temperature programed desorption (TPD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The polymeric mesoporous SO3H-ZnO catalyst owned a high surface area of 396.56 m2/g with the average pore size of 3.45 nm and acid strength of 1.92 ± 0.05 mmol/g. The catalytic activity of the synthesized catalyst was further studied via esterification of the palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), using a microwave-assisted technique. The biodiesel yield of 91.20% was achieved under the optimized esterification conditions as follows: the methanol to PFAD molar ratio of 9:1, catalyst concentration of 1.5 wt%, reaction temperature of 90 °C and reaction time of 15 min. The spent mesoporous catalyst was highly stable for reuse with nine continuous runs without further treatment.

A New Tribological Approach for Lubricated Sliding Contact of Pitted Metallic Curvature Cup

ABSTRACTInterest in the development and application of plant-based lubricants for medical use is increasing. This study investigates palm oil lubricants as environmentally friendly and renewable resources to optimize the motion in an ergonomic simulated metal hip prosthesis with modification to the acetabular cup surface. Although metal hip replacements are extensively used, minimizing metal-on-metal friction and wear using safe lubricants requires further investigation. The main physical properties of palm kernel oil and palm fatty acid distillate are considered. The viscosity, wear scar, and coefficient of friction are compared to hyaluronic acid. A modified pin-on-disc tribometer simulates friction and wear on a 28-mm-diameter acetabular cup and microscopy image analysis is used to examine the wear scar. The physical properties of palm oil derivatives reduce friction and wear. In brief, the most significant results of this study include the effect of lubricant and number of pits on wear and friction coefficient. The contribution of this research work is to maintain stability and increase the lifetime of ergonomic metal hip implants.

OPTIMASI PROSES PEMBUATAN BIODIESEL DARI ASAM LEMAK SAWIT DISTILAT (ALSD) DAN DIMETHYL CARBONATE (DMC) MENGGUNAKAN KATALIS NOVOZYM®435

Biodiesel production has rapidly grown over the last decades, and it has attracted much attention in the market as fuel that promising substitute for petroleum diesel, because its physical and chemical properties and energy content are similar to those of petroleum diesel. The main problem in producing biodiesel is its high cost which could be reduced by use of less expensive feedstock. Therefore, in this work biodiesel is synthesized by enzymatic esterification from low quality feedstock which is unrefined and much cheaper than the refined oil, such as palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) with dialkyl carbonate using immobilized lipase (Novozym®435). Enzymatic process has certain advantages over the chemical process, as it is less energy intensive, allowing the esterification of glycerides with high free fatty acid contents (PFAD, 85-95% FFA) and no enzymatic activity loss. Methanol replaced by dialkyl carbonate, especially DMC due to esterification (methanolysis) is close to equilibrium reaction whereas using DMC the intermediate compound immediately decomposes to carbon dioxide and an alcohol, which have been investigated. Moreover, DMC are cheap, eco-friendly chemical, non-toxic properties and widely available. Factors affecting the reaction such as DMC to PFAD molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time and catalyst concentration were systematically analyzed by response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite design (CCD). The optimal condition is using 6:1 molar ratio of DMC to PFAD at 60 oC, for a reaction time 3h in the presence 10wt% of catalyst (based on oil weight). The results showed that synthesis of biodiesel through enzymatic esterification using PFAD suitable for biodiesel production.

Biodiesel production in the presence of sulfonated mesoporous ZnAl2O4 catalyst via esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)

Methyl ester produced by esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is considered as a non-toxic alternative and biodegradable source of energy. In this work, a polymeric mixed metal oxide with different (Al/(Zn+Al) molar ratio was initially synthesized as a parent mesoporous ZnAl2O4 material. Then, a post-sulfonation treatment was established to prepare a polymeric solid acid SO3HZnAl2O4 catalyst with certain sulfonation degree. The physicochemical, structural, textural, thermal stability characteristics of the synthesized mesoporous catalysts were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), surface area analysis (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller equation), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, temperature programmed desorption (TPD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The optimized mesoporous SO3HZnAl2O4 catalyst possesses unique properties such as a surface area of 352.39m2g−1, the average pore diameter of 3.10nm, a total pore volume of 0.13cm3g−1, and high acid density up to 1.95mmolg−1, simultaneously. The catalytic activity of the synthesized catalyst was further examined through the esterification of PFAD, containing high free fatty acid (FFA around 90%), resulted in PFAD methyl ester yield of 94.65%. The combination of unique textural properties allows the diffusion of reagents easily into inner acid sites. Moreover, the polymeric mesoporous SO3HZnAl2O4 catalyst was able to be reused for eight consecutive cycles without substantial losses of activity.

Enhanced esterification of carboxylic acids with ethanol using propylsulfonic acid-functionalized natural rubber/hexagonal mesoporous silica nanocomposites

Propylsulfonic acid-functionalized natural rubber (NR)/hexagonal mesoporous silica (HMS) nanocomposites (NR/HMS-SO3H) with different acid contents were prepared via an in situ sol–gel process, and then applied as heterogeneous acid catalysts in the esterification of model carboxylic acids and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) with ethanol. The NR/HMS-SO3H composites exhibited a wormhole-like framework with enhanced wall thickness, high mesoporosity, and enhanced hydrophobicity. The NR/HMS-SO3H composites exhibited a superior catalytic performance compared to a commercial Nafion/silica composite solid acid catalyst (SAC-13) and conventional propylsulfonic acid-functionalized HMS (HMS-SO3H). The NR/HMS-SO3H catalyst can be regenerated and reused in the esterification.

Glycerolysis of palm fatty acid distillate for biodiesel feedstock under different reactor conditions

This paper deals with the comparative study on glycerolysis of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) in a solvent free system at different reaction conditions in an attempt to get maximum degree of FFA% reduction for biodiesel feedstock. Initially, optimization of varied reaction parameters was performed under all the different reaction conditions using artificial neural network (ANN) based on the genetic algorithm (GA). It has been found that the reduction of acidity varies with varying reaction conditions with maximum reaction rate observed in case of reaction carried-out in open reactor system with inert gas flow, followed by the reaction in open reactor system without inert gas flow and then in case of reaction under the close reactor system. In the most favorable case, 1.5mgKOH/gPFAD of FFA (free fatty acid) was achieved after 90min of reaction time with an excess glycerol of 4% at 220°C. The results from the ANN model show good agreement with experimental results. Thus, the glycerolysis in open reactor system with inert gas flow (N2) option is much-preferred option compared to acid esterification for the same biodiesel plant capacity, particularly for high-FFA feedstocks.

Effects of fat content and source as well as of calcium and potassium content in the diet on fat excretion and saponification, litter quality and foot pad health in broilers

Summary Fat content of poultry diets and a formation of soaps from fatty acids and macro minerals in the intestinal tract of animals are often discussed in regard to nutrient digestibility and energy value, but the information about the effects on litter quality and foot pad health is limited. Therefore this study was conducted to investigate the potential impact of fat and soap contents in broilers’ excreta on dry matter (dm) content of excreta and litter as well as on development and severity of foot pad dermatitis. In a first experiment a total of 200 broilers (in two consecutive trials) were housed in floor pens littered with wood shavings and were fed diets differing in fat content (55 or 110Â g/kg dm), fat source (mixed fat, palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate, PFAD) and also in dietary calcium and potassium levels (7.5/6.0 resp. 15.0/14.5Â g/kg dm). Samples of excreta and litter were taken and foot pad health of the birds was recorded weekly according to a macroscopic score of 0 to 8. In a second experiment with 104 broilers half of the birds were exposed daily for 8 hours to litter (wood shavings) enriched with a mix of two soaps (potassium oleat and stearate, 50:50) in a concentration of 2 resp. 5% at different dm contents of the litter (85 resp. 65%). A weekly macroscopically assessment of the foot pad health was done. In Trial 1 high dietary fat contents or the use of palm oil or PFAD led to considerable fat losses via excreta (up to 134Â g/kg dm). If there were, in parallel, high dietary contents of Ca and K, a remarkable saponification was observed (up to 92.9Â g/kg dm), but this did not go along with lower litter quality or higher FPD scores. Also in the 2nd experiment the exposure to high soap contents in the litter did not have negative effects on foot pad health. Only slight lesions were observed over the experimental period. As a result of this study it can be assumed that the formation of soaps in the intestinal tract of broilers from fatty acids and minerals did not have marked influences on the development and severity of foot pad dermatitis. Overall, foot pad health was enhanced by high fat excretion, which might be due to the binding of potassium in soaps. Thus, it could not be absorbed – and therefore would not be excreted via urine and cause poorer litter quality. The observed effect of high dietary fat contents on fat and soap excretion may give reason for a critical assessment regarding energy value and costs, when fat is used at higher dietary levels, especially when substituting cereal energy.

Hydrotreating of non-food feedstocks over Raney nickel for the production of synthetic diesel fuel

ABSTRACTNon-food feedstocks including castor oil, palm fatty acid distillate and waste tallow were successfully converted into liquid hydrocarbon mixtures. This was achieved by a batch hydrotreating process over commercial Raney nickel as a catalyst within 5 h at a reaction temperature of 360 °C and an initial hydrogen pressure of 90 bar. The obtained liquid products consist of straight chain alkanes in the range from C8 to C20. Low amounts (2.5–4.4%) of higher n-alkanes (up to C28) could be detected. The occurrence of the latter indicates a Fischer-Tropsch like process under the chosen conditions besides the expected decarbonylation/decarboxylation and accompanying cracking reactions. Products obtained from castor oil also comprised an overall amount of 19% of ketones in the range from C8 to C19. All obtained products were tested on important fuel properties according to well-established methods given in EN 590, the European Standard for diesel fuel. Comparison with the obligatory boundary values given within this specification suggests an excellent suitability as blending components for fossil diesel fuel. For a full replacement further upgrading would be necessary.

Utilization of palm fatty acid distillate in methyl esters preparation using [formula omitted]/TiO2–SiO2 as a solid acid catalyst

The use of by-products, particularly in the biodiesel industry, has gained much attention owing to their potential in countering higher feedstock costs. A low-value by-product of palm oil refining, the palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), was utilized as a feedstock for biodiesel preparation with the aid of a solid acid catalyst, SO42−/TiO2–SiO2. A central composite design is applied to optimize the major influential manipulate variables. The analysis of variance identifies the methanol/PFAD molar ratio as having a dominant effect on methyl ester conversion, followed by catalyst amount and reaction time respectively. The utilization of PFAD with the aid of a solid acid catalyst results in 93.3 ± 1.02% conversion at the most optimized reaction conditions of 2.97 ± 0.04 wt% for the catalyst amount, 5.85 ± 0.14 methanol/PFAD molar ratio and 3.12 ± 0.14 h of reaction time.

Characterization of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate of Different Oil Processing Industries of Pakistan.

Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is cheap and valuable byproduct of edible oil processing industries. This study was designed to characterize PFAD collected from different local oil industries. AOCS methods were used for the determination of physicochemical parameters such as free fatty acid (FFA), saponification value (SV), iodine value (IV), peroxide value (PV) and moisture content. Fatty acid composition was analyzed using GC-MS. Moisture content of samples was found to be in the range between 0.06-7.50%, while FFA, SV, IV and PV were found to be 65.70-94.68%, 195.23-219.64 mg KOH/g, 38.49- 63.10 g I2/100 g, 1.09-16.50 meq/kg, respectively. Mean value of fatty acids in PFAD was found as 0.04% lauric, 0.42% myristic, 41.25% palmitic, 7.29% stearic, 41.58% oleic, 8.95 % linoleic, 0.04% eicosenoic, 0.27% arachidic, 0.07% docosanoic, and 0.05% tetracosanoic acid, respectively. Palmitic acid was found as dominant saturated fatty acid 38.63-45.30%, whereas oleic acid C18:1 n9 was major unsaturated fatty acid 33.54-44.05 % in PFAD.

Removal of free fatty acid in Palm Fatty Acid Distillate using sulfonated carbon catalyst derived from biomass wastefor biodiesel production

In this research, the esterification of PFAD using the sulfonatedcoconut shell biochar catalyst was studied. Carbon solid catalysts were prepared by a sulfonation of carbonized coconut shells. The performances of the catalysts were evaluated in terms of the reaction temperatures, the molar ratios of methanol to PFAD, the catalyst loading and the reaction times. The reusability of the solid acid carbon catalysts was also studied in this work. The results indicated that the FFA conversion was significantly increased with increasing catalyst loading and reaction times. It can be concluded that the optimal conditions were an PFAD to methanol molar ratio of 1:12, the amount of catalyst of 10%w, and reaction temperature of 60oC.At this optimum condition, the conversion to biodieselreached 88%.

Sulfonated Beet Pulp as Solid Catalyst in One‐Step Esterification of Industrial Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

AbstractIn this research a new heterogeneous catalyst has been prepared for biodiesel production. The catalyst was prepared by sulfonating industrial sugar waste. Unlike homogeneous catalysts, which require further purification and separation from the biodiesel production reaction media, this inexpensive synthetic catalyst does not need to go through an additional separation process. This advantage consequently minimizes the total application costs. The catalyst was prepared by partially carbonizing sugar beet pulp at 400 °C. The carbonization product was then sulfonated with concentrated H2SO4 vapor in order to produce a solid catalyst. The prepared catalyst was used in the esterification reaction between palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) and methanol. The effects of the temperature, methanol/PFAD ratio, reaction time and catalyst dosage on the efficiency of the production were individually investigated. The optimum biodiesel production occurred at 85 °C, a reaction time of 300 min, catalyst dosage of 3 g and methanol/PFAD ratio of 5:1 (mol/mol), lowering the acid value from 198 to 13.1 (mg KOH/g oil) or the equivalent, with a fatty acid methyl ester yield of around 92 %. The results suggest that the synthesized inexpensive catalyst is useful for biodiesel production from PFAD.

MIKROEMULSIFIKASI FRAKSI TIDAK TERSABUNKAN DISTILAT ASAM LEMAK MINYAK SAWIT

Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of palm oil refining that contains valuable bioactive compounds such as phytosterols, tocopherol, tocotrienols, and squalene which acummulates in unsa-ponifiable fraction (USF). In the form of emulsion, USF will be convenient and easy to use as food supplements or fortificants. Microemulsion is a type of emulsion that has stable droplet sizes less than 10 mm. Hence, the best emulsifier for USF microemulsion is important to be determined. The USF micro-emulsion was prepared by homogenizing the sample mixtures at 12.000 rpm for 20 min at USF concentration of 10% (w/v) with lecithin and tween 80 as emulsifiers at concentration of 0.5,1.0, and 1.5% (w/v). The microemulsions were analyzed for their viscosity, stability, and particle size distributions, as well as microstructures. The results showed that characteristics of microemulsion were affected by emulsifier types and concentrations. Tween 80 produced better microemulsion than lecithin indicated by more stable emulsions, smaller droplet sizes, and narrower ranges of droplet size distributions. The increasing lectihin concentrations resulted in a narrower droplet size distribution but the average droplet size was not always smaller. Conversely, the increasing tween 80 concentrations increased average droplet sizes and ranges of particle size distributions. The most suitable emulsifier for USF microemulsion was tween 80 at concen-tration of 0.5%. This microemulsion contained bioactive compounds derived from USF, namely vitamin E (mainly tocotrienols), phytosterols, and squalene.