Paleoindian Occupation Research Articles

Introduction to the Special Section: Paleoindian Archaeology of the Tennessee Valley

ABSTRACT Perspectives on the Paleoindian occupation of the unglaciated eastern United States have changed significantly in the last 25 years. Historically, the Midsouth riverine region has been described as consisting of few true sites but many isolated projectile points, with Paleoindians rarely participating in the behaviors that produce sites. Due to the efforts of individuals such as Charles M. Hubbert, however, we know this is no longer a tenable interpretation. In this perspective, the author provides a brief overview of the influence of Hubbert and places his career within a historical context. Hubbert spent much of his career working in the Tennessee Valley, and the papers in this special section highlight new research efforts in the Tennessee Valley and Midsouth. The author also introduces the set of three papers that make up this special section of this issue of PaleoAmerica.

Revisiting Alice Boer: Site formation processes and dating issues of a supposedly pre‐Clovis site in Southeastern Brazil

AbstractThe Alice Boer site, located in Southeastern Brazil, was considered to be one of the oldest sites in the Americas, and a strong candidate for being a pre‐Clovis site. Ages obtained by researchers during the 1970s and 1980s put the site inside a chronological range between 2 and 14 ka, eventually reaching as old as 30 ka or even 130 ka. Between 2010 and 2012, our research team revisited the site to improve the knowledge of Paleoindian occupation in Southeastern Brazil. Here, we present new data of stratigraphy and chronology (luminescence and radiocarbon dating), pedological and magnetic analysis performed at some of the sites. Results show that the site's oldest occupation took place ca. 8 ka, which provides new insight into human occupation in South America. In addition, we show some issues with radiocarbon contamination due to soil humin fraction mobility.

Micro-regional approaches for submerged site archaeology

Some of the most pivotal questions in human prehistory hinge on archaeological sites that are now under water. While the discovery of submerged sites presents numerous technological challenges, they offer unique potentials for investigating time periods, cultures, and adaptations that are only poorly known on land. Yet despite this potential, the results from underwater research have, to date, had relatively limited impact. One reason is that underwater research rarely produces the systematic coverage of space and material culture that is needed to conduct anthropologically relevant research. The investigation of micro-regions as a means to elucidate economic and social relations in the past has been widely adopted in terrestrial archaeology, and yet is arguably even better suited to submerged settings. By defining specific and comparable localities as the target for intensive search, a micro-regional approach can provide the framework for generating a rigorous systematic coverage of space and material, while still operating within the physical and financial constraints of underwater research. This paper illustrates how a micro-regional approach to submerged landscapes can be operationalized as represented by survey efforts on the Late Paleoindian occupation of the Alpena-Amberley Ridge beneath modern Lake Huron.

Reconsidering the potential role of saline springs in the Paleoindian occupation of Sandy Springs, Adams County, Ohio

The potential role of saline springs in Paleoindian settlement models has been espoused for over 50years. An early example of this adaptive strategy was proposed in 1973 by Roger Cunningham in his formative discussion of the Paleoindian Sandy Springs site in Adams County, Ohio. Cunningham argued that saline springs located among local sand dunes acted as a significant draw for migrating game animals and, subsequently, the Paleoindian hunters that pursued them. Despite being widely accepted and repeated in the literature, the claim of saline-enriched groundwater at Sandy Springs has never been evaluated quantitatively. To assess the accuracy of Cunningham's claim, this study completed electrical conductivity and pH analysis of surface water and sediment samples within a 20-km radius of Sandy Springs. Testing failed to identify water samples >320ppm total dissolved solids, a result far below established thresholds for brackish or brine classification. Underlying local bedrock geology also is not conducive for the presence of saline springs, and no mention of salt licks, commercial salt wells, or animal trails has been identified in the literature for Adams County, Ohio. Sediment samples from sand dunes locations previously argued to contain saline springs at Sandy Springs also failed to yield statistically different pH values than those from non-dune, alluvial contexts. Overall, the reported presence of saline springs at Sandy Springs could not be verified by geochemical data. Instead, it is suggested in this article that saline groundwater was not a principal factor in determining Paleoindian occupation of the site. Alternative explanations for site occupancy include the possible presence of rare resources associated with a sand prairie ecosystem and the potential that Sandy Springs was positioned along an early trail system connecting the upper Ohio Valley with the Tennessee and Cumberland Valleys.

Badger Springs: Evidence for a Late Paleoindian Angostura Occupation on the Southwestern Colorado Plateau

The Badger Springs site (AZ D:5:13; NA10924) is a late Paleoindian occupation located on the Kaibito Plateau in northeastern Arizona, just northwest of Black Mesa. The site was discovered and surface-collected in the 1970s. Quantitative analyses conducted as part of this research revealed that the Badger Springs projectile points are morphologically consistent with projectile points of the Angostura type. Previous archaeological investigations have failed to identify late Paleoindian campsites, especially Angostura occupations, on the southwestern Colorado Plateau. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, we present a morphological analysis of projectile points from the Badger Springs site in northeastern Arizona using quantitative methods developed by Pitblado [Pitblado, Bonnie L. 2007 Angostura, Jimmy Allen, Foothills-Mountain: Clarifying Terminology for Late Paleoindian Southern Rocky Mountain Spear Points. In Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology, edited by R. H. Brunswig and B. L. Pitblado. University Press of Colorado, Boulder] to determine point type and, therefore, probable adaptive strategy. Second, we discuss the implications of the presence of a late Paleoindian Angostura occupation on the southwestern Colorado Plateau and the Badger Springs assemblage.

Cueva del Medio: A Paleoindian Site and Its Environmental Setting in Southern South America

This article reports the results of the palynological analysis obtained from one of the archaeological profiles exposed at Cueva del Medio, a Paleoindian site located at the southern tip of South America (Ultima Esperanza, Chile). The earliest occupation is located over a sand layer which follows the natural slope of the sedimentological matrix of the cave. The findings of this level are significant, as they demonstrate a clear Paleoindian context, linking humans with extinct fauna. Based on the palynological analysis and previous results obtained in the region, the environmental setting of Cueva del Medio is described. Paleoindian occupations of the cave, estimated to date from approximately 11 - 10 kya, may have taken place at about the time of initial, albeit ephemeral, Nothofagus expansion. Climate becoming more mesic was evidently transitory, and possibly favored some development of arboreal communities. Summer drought for a time afterward, in turn, was less favorable to the spread of trees, as inferred by the successive prevalence of steppe.

Spatial variability of Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene soil formation and its relation to early human paleoecology in Northwest Mexico

In Sonora, northwest Mexico, we have recognized the existence of paleosol units of Late Pleistocene/Early and Middle Holocene age (13,000 to 4,250 Cal years BP) at several archaeological sites with Paleo-indian occupations (e.g. La Playa, Fin del Mundo, El Bajio, El Aigame and El Arenoso). The few paleoenviromental reconstructions from the region indicate that the end of the Pleistocene was dominated by temperate climate that promoted the establishment of the first people in coexistence and interaction with the Pleistocene megafauna. The study of the spatial distribution of various soil units developed during late Pleistocene in the region provides information about local environmental settings of the initial peopling of Sonora. Several pedosedimentary sequences were analyzed in the different parts of Sonora, the age control in which was provided by archaeological and paleontological findings and/or by the radiocarbon dating of carbonates and paleosol humus.Two trends of the Late Pleistocene pedogenesis have been identified. The profiles located in the south, center and north of the state are dominated by red soils (earlier referred as Big Red in the archaeological literature) whose characteristics are represented by the Red San Rafael Paleosol (SRP). The properties of SRP in the lower part of the profile (rubification, clay accumulation, hig magnetic susceptibility, illuvial carbonates, and redoximorphic features) are indicative of a more humid environment. Above them is a late Holocene polycyclic sequence of soils with morphological characteristics displaying a more incipient development.In contrast with the sequence described above, El Arenoso, north of Caborca, show a sequence of gray soils. Two paleosols were formed in alluvial sediments. At the Cantera profile (CTP) and El Arenoso profile (ARP) paleosols are represented by Bgk horizons and evidence of weathering and clay neoformation, redoximorphic processes and illuvial accumulation of carbonates. We explain the differences of north-western profiles by specific geomorphic conditions which imply limited soil drainage and the possibility of over-wetting. These processes indicate alternating a humid environment (weathering, rubification, clay formation and redoximorphic processes); and dry periods (carbonates accumulation). Despite regional differences of the late Pleistocene paleosols, the comparison with the Holocene soils demonstrates clear trends towards desertification in the region. The first people that inhabited Sonora during the late Pleistocene found a more temperate and wetter climate than they encountered further to the north, but subsequent generations witnessed a rapid desiccation of the region with the formation of the Sonoran Desert in the early Holocene.

The Late Paleoindian Occupation of the Western Ouachita Mountains of Southeast Oklahoma: The Archaeology of Component V at the Quince Site (34AT134)

The Quince site (34AT134) is a well-preserved and relatively deeply stratified Ouachita Mountains archaeological site in Atoka County in southeastern Oklahoma. The site’s archaeological deposits are buried in Late Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial terrace deposits of McGee Creek, a tributary to Muddy Boggy Creek, itself a southern-flowing tributary to the Red River, that cuts through the western edge of the mountains. Excavated in 1982 and 1983 prior to the creation of McGee Creek Reservoir by the Bureau of Reclamation, the 3.0 m deep archaeological deposits at the Quince site contained a record of prehistoric occupations spanning most of the Holocene period (from ca. 10,500 B.P to 1000 radiocarbon years B.P., or ca. 12,590 to 927 calibrated years B.P.) Woodland (Component I), Late Archaic (Components II and III), and Middle Archaic (Component IV) period occupational deposits are present in good stratigraphic order within the upper 1 m of McGee Creek alluvium. There are also a series of buried Late Paleoindian occupations (in what is defined as Component V) with features and chipped stone lithic tools recovered in situ that are recognized beginning from about 1.10 m to 3.0 m in depth below the surface. In this article, I discuss the archaeological evidence for use of the Western Ouachita Mountains by Late Paleoindian foragers as seen principally from the micro-scale; that is, from the perspective of this one well-preserved and stratified Late Paleoindian site. Paleoindian occupations with good stratigraphic context are apparently quite rare in the Ouachita Mountains and along the edge of the Southeastern woodlands and the Great Plains in the eastern and eastcentral part of the state of Oklahoma. Much of the archaeological research dealing with Late Paleoindian peoples in this region has dealt primarily with the description and classification of isolated temporally diagnostic projectile points (and the kinds of lithic raw materials employed in projectile point manufacture) found on the surface or in mixed and relatively shallow stratigraphic contexts. The Quince site Late Paleoindian archaeological deposits provide direct and compelling evidence for the long-term and recurrent use of the western Ouachita Mountains by hunter-gatherer groups.

Underwater Archaeology at 41HY147, the Terrace Locality at Spring Lake

Underwater investigations conducted at Spring Lake in the 1970s and 1980s by the late Dr. Joel Shiner contributed to our overall understanding of the archaeological record in Central Texas and its relationship to prehistory in North America. His work not only produced abundant evidence for early Paleoindian occupations associated with freshwater spring sites but also helped to demonstrate a nearly continuous sequence of occupation spanning more than 13,000 years, from Clovis times through the Spanish Colonial era and into the historic period. Using field notes and correspondences held in the records and collections repository at the Center for Archaeological Studies, Texas State University-San Marcos, we reconstruct a history of Shiner’s work at the lake and present new analytic data about the temporally diagnostic artifacts comprising the 41HY147 collection. Results are discussed in the context of regional findings elsewhere. In addition to detailed descriptions of this collection, we have given special attention to preparing high quality illustrations of many of these artifacts, most of which are presented to the public for the first time in this report. Publication of the findings from this early research at Spring Lake illustrates the significance of this site in the cultural landscape, and provides a sound basis for the ongoing and future scientific investigations here. The report was undertaken as an alternative mitigation measure to help offset potentially unavoidable impacts to important cultural resources at Spring Lake that may have occurred as part of the recently completed Section 206 aquatic ecosystem restoration project at the headwaters of the San Marcos River conducted jointly by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and Texas State University.

Social work in Africa: exploring culturally relevant education and practice in Ghana

Preface Introduction Environment: Modern and Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherer Land Use, Lithic Technology, and Late Paleoindian Occupation of the Project Area Projectile Point Analysis Procedure Late Paleoindian Projectile Point Typology in the Western United States Late Paleoindian Projectile Points: Typological Variability Late Paleoindian Projectile Points: Raw Material Variability Late Paleoindian Projectile Points: Qualitative Technological Variability Late Paleoindian Projectile Points: Quantitative Technological Variability Late Paleoindian Projectile Points: Condition and Reworking Discussion and Conclusions.

Holocene paleoshorelines, water levels and submerged prehistoric site potential of Rice Lake (Ontario, Canada)

Rice Lake, located in the eastern Great Lakes of North America, has a high density of prehistoric (11–0.5 ka BP) terrestrial archaeological sites. It has been speculated that a large number of sites are submerged on the lakebed, as lake levels have risen >9 m since the arrival of Early Paleoindian peoples (∼11 ka BP). In order to better understand the submerged landscape and its archaeological potential, a detailed bathymetric survey and sediment-coring program was conducted across a 30-km2 area of northeastern Rice Lake. Changes in Holocene water levels and shoreline positions were reconstructed by integrating core data with a digital elevation and bathymetric model (DEBM) that accounted for differential isostatic uplift and basin sedimentation. The DEBM was used to generate a series of maps showing changes in the lake paleobathmetry and paleogeography and areas of prehistoric archaeological potential.Isostatic uplift of the eastern basin outlet (>30 m) had a dramatic influence on water levels and shoreline positions since the inception of Rice Lake (∼12 ka BP). During the Early Paleoindian occupation phase (∼11–10.5 ka BP), water levels were at a maximum lowstand (10 m bpl) and much of the present lakebed was an exposed lake plain with extensive wetlands. At the time of the Late Paleoindian/Early Archaic occupation (9.5–8.7 ka bp; 11,150–9560 cal. BP), the lake was about half its modern extent and during the second lowstand phase (<6000 cal. BP) water levels dropped to >4 m bpl and the lake became hydrologically closed. After 4000 cal. BP, water levels recovered and the lake approached its modern extents. An archaeological potential map based on the reconstructed paleoshorelines identified four areas with archaeological potential: these include drowned river mouths, submerged wetlands and an area of uplifted Early Holocene lakebed in northeast Rice Lake. The results illustrate that isostatically driven changes in lake paleobathymetry can be substantial and must be accounted for when attempting to reconstruct paleoshoreline positions. The approach can be applied more broadly to other basins within the Great Lakes and elsewhere to assess prehistoric site archaeological potential.

Clovis, Folsom, and Midland components at the Debra L. Friedkin site, Texas: context, chronology, and assemblages

The archaeological transition from Clovis to Folsom and Midland in the North American Great Plains coincides with the end of the Pleistocene and onset of the Younger Dryas. Comparisons exploring the adaptive changes that took place during this period frequently employ regional-scale approaches. The focus on regional-scale analyses largely results from the dearth of sites repeatedly visited by multiple early Paleoindian groups. However, regional-scale comparisons have the potential to overlook smaller-scale differences. The Debra L. Friedkin site, Texas offers an opportunity to study Midland, Folsom, and Clovis technology and site-use at a single site. This paper presents the context and chronology of the Midland, Folsom, and Clovis assemblages and a site-scale analysis of lithics from the Friedkin site. It is argued that point production and late-stage reduction were primary activities, and the use of bifacial cores for flake tools was important throughout these occupation periods. Site use at Friedkin differs from early Paleoindian occupation at the nearby Gault site and expands our understanding of settlement and technological organization in the region.

Paleoindian and later occupations along ancient shorelines of the San Agustín Plains, New Mexico

To better understand the residential behavior of Paleoindian (14,000–8000 CAL B.P.) and later groups (Archaic and Formative period), our project undertook an investigation of the eastern sub-basins of the high elevation (> 2070 masl) San Agustín Plains in west-central New Mexico. The work included pedestrian survey of 390 ha, geoarchaeological studies, an analysis of private collections consisting of 210 artifacts from 75 sites, and site-file record searches. The preliminary results from this project suggest the presence of significant Archaic and Paleoindian occupations along paleolake shorelines in the northeastern portion of the San Agustín Plains. Most of the archaeological sites from this area represent isolated finds of diagnostic projectile points, although a few large multicomponent sites were also identified. Functional and temporal differences between the occupations of the two sub-basins show that human use of the area shifted gradually from one focused on moderate to low-intensity habitation (Paleoindian and Archaic period) to one of short-term seasonal visits associated with special-function resource extraction activities (Formative period) in response to the disappearance of surface water features.

Playa Archaeology on the Southern High Plains of Texas: A Spatial Analysis of Hunter-Gatherer Occupations at Tahoka-Walker (41LY53)

Tahoka-Walker (41LY53) is a multi-component Paleoindian and Late Archaic campsite located along the margins of a playa near the town of Tahoka on the Southern High Plains of Texas. Three discrete concentrations of artifacts observed while mapping the surface distribution of artifacts suggest separate activity areas. A spatial analysis of the distribution of lithic artifacts by their raw material source and minimum analytical nodule is undertaken to determine if a separate Paleoindian and Late Archaic occupation could be distinguished. In addition, minimum analytical nodules are used to deduce the technological planning strategies evident at Tahoka-Walker. A spatial analysis of hearthstones and bone scrap are used to compare with the distribution of lithic artifact clusters. Spatial analysis confirms the presence of three distinct areas that coincide with the three concentrations noted in the field. One is an activity area associated with a Paleoindian occupation, but Late Archaic activities overlap the Paleoindian activity area in extent, and cannot be distinguished spatially. Information recovered from the piece-point plotted surface artifacts holds great potential for spatial analysis, but investigating the spatial structure of the site is critical for determining what types of cultural inferences can be made about the site.

Freshwater availability as the constraining factor in the Middle Paleoindian occupation of North‐Central Florida

AbstractThe locations of reliable surface water exposures during the Middle Paleoindian period (10,800–10,200 14C yr B.P.) in north‐central Florida are reconstructed and compared to the concentrations of Middle Paleoindian projectile points. Estimates of water table levels and surface water flow in Florida's karst geology confirm prior climate reconstructions for that time indicating the area was arid and supported a xeric ecology in most upland locales. Surface water flow data from recent extreme droughts and water table estimations are used to identify the areas of highest probability for surface water availability. The distribution of the highest concentrations of Middle Paleoindian points correlates with the areas of highest probability, indicating that scarce surface water sources were the strongest constraint on occupation location during that time. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

California archaeological record consistent with Younger Dryas disruptive event

Buchanan et al. (1) assert that the radiocarbon record from the United States and Canada does not support the extraterrestrial impact hypothesis, but their claims do not hold true for the California archaeological record. Fluted projectile points marking Paleoindian occupations have been reported from no fewer than 51 locations in California (2), and no fewer than 38 sites have produced radiocarbon evidence for occupation between 10,500 and 9,000 calibrated yrs BP (3). Only two sites have produced fluted points and early Holocene occupational residues together in stratified context. At the same time, none of the sites that have produced radiocarbon evidence for occupation between 10,500 and 9,000 calibrated yrs BP have yielded fluted points. There are no archaeological sites in California that have reliable radiocarbon dates between 12,900 and 12,200 calibrated yrs BP and precious few that date between 12,000 and 10,500 calibrated yrs BP. The earliest archaeological record from California is therefore marked by a strong cultural unconformity between the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene that is consistent with a significant disruptive event of the type described by Firestone et al. (4) and Kennett et al. (5). A more careful evaluation of the full cultural and archaeological record from the regions discussed by Buchanan et al. (1) would likely show similar patterns.

Research in the Middle Negro River Basin (Uruguay) and the Paleoindian Occupation of the Southern Cone

Most scholars now believe that the Americas were peopled more than once and that these colonizing events produced a remarkable technological and adaptive diversity in South America during the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene. The Southern Cone has played an important role in this history. The discovery in the 1930s of projectile points associated with the remains of Pleistocene fauna at Fell’s and Pali Aike Caves has been followed by the discovery of similar Paleoindian artifacts in Ecuador, Argentina, and Uruguay. The Negro River basin in Uruguay has produced thousands of artifacts representing the earliest hunter‐gatherer occupation. Recent investigations there have revealed strong morphological and technological similarities with other South American regions, among them similarities in blank selection, total or partial bifacial flaking in the early stages of manufacture, final shaping by short pressure retouches, carefully abraded stems, blade resharpening patterns, and variability. Although in ...

Diversion Dam Cave (10-AA-99): A Paleoindian Site near Boise, Idaho

In this article we describe the results of excavation at the Diversion Dam Cave (10-AA-99) near Boise, Idaho, sponsored by the Bureau of Reclamation. Although the site has been heavily impacted over the years by illegal digging and urban encroachment, the data from these excavations confirmed that some deposits are intact. Radiocarbon data suggest a Paleoindian occupation, prior to 9220 ± 100 RCYBP and as far back as approximately 12,000 RCYBP. No artifacts diagnostic of a specific cultural group were recovered, but the hearth features, hand polish on rocks, and river cobbles with pecking damage all point to human occupation. Faunal analysis suggests that small and medium mammals and fish were exploited, while botanical data suggest the use of both local and more distant resources as fuel. Although the cultural deposits were sparse, radiocarbon dates suggest occupation during the Paleoarchaic Period, a time frame with few examples in Idaho.

Geoarchaeology of the Boca Negra Wash Area, Albuquerque Basin, New Mexico, USA

Dozens of Paleoindian sites, including the Boca Negra Wash (BNW) Folsom site (LA 124474), are scattered across a basalt plateau (the West Mesa) on the western side of the Albuquerque Basin, and adjacent uplands. The BNW site, like many others in the area, is located near a small (˜60 × 90 m) playa basin that formed in a depression on the basalt surface and was subsequently covered by an eolian sand sheet (Unit 1) dated by OSL to ˜23,000 yr B.P. Most of the basin fill is ˜2 m of playa mud (Units 2 and 3) dating ˜13,970 14C yr B.P. (17,160–16,140 cal yr B.P.) at the sand–mud interface to ˜2810 14C yr B.P. (˜2960–2860 cal yr B.P.) at the top. C/N ratios suggest that the BNW playa basin probably held water more often during the Folsom occupation; stable carbon isotope values indicate C3 vegetation was more common as well, but C4 grasses became dominant in the Holocene. Cores extracted from four playa basins nearby revealed a similar stratigraphy and geochronology, documenting presence of wetlands on playa floors during the Paleoindian occupation of the area. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The archaeology of Iwokrama and the North Rupununi

Archaeological investigations within Iwokrama Forest document significant Archaic and Horticultural occupations throughout the Reserve. Significantly, no evidence of earlier Paleoindian occupations (pre-7,000 B.P.) is documented. The Archaic Period from 7,000 to 3,000 B.P. (before present) is characterized by a variety of site types including artificial stone depressions and sharpening grooves, petroglyphs and a lithic tool manufacturing station. Petroglyphs reflect the Enumerative and Fish Trap Petroglyph Traditions better known from the savannah and rivers in southern Guyana. Archaic Period sites are found along major rivers and in the Iwokrama Mountains. Horticultural Period occupations dating from 3,000 B.P. to the Historic Period (mid-18th century), include eight archaeological sites that have produced a wide range of vessel forms similar to Koriabo, Taruma and Rupununi types found elsewhere in Guyana. The occurrence of polychrome types by 3,000 B.P. indicates an early arrival of such styles in the area.