Palaeolithic Rock Art Research Articles

From Chauvet to Lascaux: 15,000 Years of Cave Art

The earliest art of Western Europe was evolving together with the Homo sapiens population of hunter-gatherers in the glacial environment of the northern hemisphere over the entire Upper Paleolithic (36–13 ka BP). The most important rock art sites, such as Altamira and La Garma in Spain, and Lascaux, Niaux, Cussac, and Chauvet in France, are relevant to the socio-cultural behavior and needs of anatomically modern humans. In this paper, we intend to identify certain changes in the symbolic language, in the ways animals are rendered, and in the layout of artistic space over 15,000 years separating the two key rock art galleries with the best preserved representations: Chauvet (36 ka BP) and Lascaux (21 ka BP). Chauvet, discovered in 1994, is located in the Ardeche Valley near the Mediterranean coast. In this large cave, numerous new kinds of Upper Paleolithic rock art were documented, spanning two distinct occupation periods between 37,000–30,000 years ago. The early stage is the Aurignacian with black zoomorphic paintings, dating to 37,000–33,500 BP. Lascaux, discovered in 1940, is situated in the Vezere Valley, 120 km away from the Atlantic coast, among a large cluster of rupestral art sites in caves and rock shelters. Today, the cave is closed for the public because intense tourist activities over many years from its discovery until 1963 have disrupted the microclimate of the cave and endangered the paintings.

Beyond size: The potential of a geometric morphometric analysis of shape and form for the assessment of sex in hand stencils in rock art

Hand stencils are some of the most enduring images in Upper Palaeolithic rock art sites across the world; the earliest have been dated to over 40 Kya in Sulawesi and 37 Kya in Europe. The analysis of these marks may permit us to know more about who was involved in the making the of prehistoric images as well as expanding the literature on the evolution of human behaviour. A number of researchers have previously attempted to identify the sex of the makers of Upper Palaeolithic hand stencils using methods based on hand size and digit length ratios obtained from digital or photo-based images of modern reference samples. Some analyses report that it was males who were responsible for the majority of hand stencils, whilst the most recent analysis determined that females produced the majority of hand stencils. Taken together, however, these studies generate contrasting and incompatible interpretations. In this study we critically review where we currently stand with methods of sexing the makers of hand stencils and the problems for the interpretation of hand markings of Palaeolithic age. We then present the results of a new method of predicting the sex of individuals from their hand stencils using a geometric morphometric approach that detects sexual differences in hand shape and hand form (size and shape). The method has the additional advantage of being able to detect these differences in both complete, as well as partial hand stencils. Finally we urge researchers to test this method on other ethnic groups and populations and consider ways of combining efforts towards a common goal of developing a robust, predictive methodology based on diverse modern samples before it is applied to Upper Palaeolithic hand stencils.

U-series dating of Palaeolithic rock art at Fuente del Trucho (Aragón, Spain)

Abstract This paper concerns the dating of the Palaeolithic rock art of the Fuente del Trucho cave. We used the U–Th method to date calcite crusts superimposed to the paintings. Whenever sub-samples of a single crust could be dated we obtained stratigraphically consistent results and the correction for detrital contamination is negligible. Our results are strictly reliable as minimum ages and suggest that the decoration of this site is of a Gravettian or earlier age, even though a Solutrean chronology cannot be excluded in a few cases. These results are upheld by stylistical comparison with Spanish and French parietal and mobiliary art.

New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of the first surveys

Abstract In the Mediterranean watershed of the Iberian Peninsula, Palaeolithic rock art remains a rare phenomenon. Thanks to the discovery of the Cova del Comte, where the art is accompanied by an archaeological deposit, we are able to study it within a defined chronological context. The stylistic features of some of the figures correspond to ancient pre-Magdalenian art, which places it within the Gravettian and early Solutrean period; this information is consistent with the results of the excavation.

First Palaeolithic rock art in Germany: engravings on Hunsrück slate

Abstract

Comment on: “Uranium–thorium dating method and Palaeolithic rock art” by Sauvet et al. (2015, in press)

Abstract Sauvet et al. (in press) present a partial description of the Uranium-series or 230Th/234U dating method, which leads them to criticize this dating tool and claim that this method provides “an extremely wide range of uncertainty providing a weak base upon which to build scientific reasoning”. In this comment, we discuss three concepts introduced by these authors that could lead to a misunderstanding of the method and its application in the archaeological community and in the scientific debate about rock art chronology. The first misconception concerns the claim that “speleothems stopped during much of the Upper Palaeolithic”. A brief review of the literature demonstrates that this affirmation is not quite exact as a large number of studies document speleothem growth in Europe and circum-Mediterranean regions (as well as in other regions) during the upper Paleolithic. Secondly, Sauvet et al. claim that when age corrections are applied due to the possible presence of initial 230Th, the ages should be considered with caution or they should be rejected. However, this is not entirely correct, as this detrital fraction can be determined using several methods (and not merely assumed to be a “mean earth value”). Thirdly, with respect to their claim that “Loss of uranium or input of 230Th leads to anomalously old ages and sometimes to the impossibility to calculate an age when 230Th/234U > 1”, we present a classical figure of 230Th/234U evolution vs 234U/238U that can be drawn using the U-series equations demonstrating that 230Th/234U ratios can in fact be >1 and permit a valid age determination.

Lighting the dark: Wood charcoal analysis from Cueva de Nerja (Málaga, Spain) as a tool to explore the context of Palaeolithic rock art

This study examines 100 charred plant macroremains from the inner galleries of Cueva de Nerja in order to better understand the context of Palaeolithic rock art and obtain information about possible lighting systems. The remains were retrieved on the surface, very close to Palaeolithic cave paintings, and also from inside possible points of fixed lighting. The predominant wood-type is Pinus sp., especially Pinus tp. sylvestris/nigra. The taphonomic alterations recorded are attributable to the combustion process (vitrification and cracks), the possible gathering of dead wood (fungal hyphae/mycelia), the use of branches and twigs (reaction wood) and the burning of resinous taxa (resin marks). The identification of a vegetative bud of Pinus sylvestris furnishes information about the use of tree branches, as well as the time of year at which the Cueva de Nerja may have been frequented by prehistoric groups.

La ‘Galería de los Bisontes’: un nuevo sector decorado en la Cueva de Alkerdi (Urdazubi/Urdax, Navarra)

Alkerdi is the only cave with Paleolithic rock art engravings known in the Regional Community of Navarre. Located in Pyrenean foothills, its discovery was carried out by the French speleologist N. Casteret in 1930, who published it briefly shortly after (1933). The detailed study of the engravings will not take place until several decades after, by I. Barandiaran (1974) who, in the last years, has excavated the archaeological deposit of the cavity (2009). During 2014 the signers have developed a new study of the parietal art because of the finding of a new decorated gallery in which there are concentrated twenty engraved figures, mainly representations of bison, which exponentially multiply the previously known set. The conventions and formal characteristics of the figures respond to those ones of the Middle Magdalenian, and especially tie to the sets of the Pyrenean region. This new turn in the knowledge of the parietal art of the cavity forces a re-evaluation of the study in this area hinged in the western Pyrenees.

Uranium–thorium dating method and Palaeolithic rock art

Abstract Dramatic progress was seen in 14C-dating with the introduction of accelerator mass spectroscopy (AMS) which made possible the direct dating of prehistoric artworks painted or drawn with charcoal. However, in the case of engravings and red paintings, only indirect methods can be used that allow us to date deposits that have covered the works over time (TL, U/Th, oxalates, etc.). The uranium/thorium dating method gives reliable and relatively precise results in the case of massive speleothems, because the sampling is carried out at the heart of the material where the hypothesis of a closed system (that is, no exchange with the outside environment) is justified in most cases. Unfortunately, the situation is quite different in the case of thin layers of calcite that overlie Palaeolithic cave drawings. The conditions under which calcite forms depend largely on the hydrologic activity, which has greatly varied over the course of the Upper Palaeolithic and Holocene. In many cases, we can see that the growth of speleothems stopped during much of the Upper Palaeolithic. Consequently the ages obtained are minimum ages (terminus ante quem) which are frequently much younger than the real ages of the underlying artworks. Moreover, a much more serious but rarely considered source of error contradicts the assumption of a closed system. In thin layers of carbonate deposits and in damp media, the uranium incorporated into the calcite during its crystallization may be partially eliminated because of its solubility in water. Uranium leaching causes an artificial increase of the age that may reach considerable proportions (e.g. a negative hand in a cave in Borneo was dated to 27,000 years by U/Th whereas its 14C age was only 8–10,000 cal BP; Plagnes et al., 2003). Due to these two contradictory sources of error, the dates given by the U/Th method may prove to be younger or older, with deviations that are much larger than the standard deviations given by laboratories. As a result it is nearly impossible and very dangerous to base archaeological reasoning on U/Th ages of Palaeolithic artworks, so long as the dates are not confirmed by an independent method, dating the carbonates in the same samples by 14C being the best means of detecting anomalies. The application of the U/Th method for the dating of prehistoric rock art is still experimental. Technical improvements (for less damageable sampling) and fundamental research on the causes of errors are needed.

The chronology of hand stencils in European Palaeolithic rock art: implications of new U-series results from El Castillo Cave (Cantabria, Spain).

The hand stencils of European Paleolithic art tend to be considered of pre-Magdalenian age and scholars have generally assigned them to the Gravettian period. At El Castillo Cave, application of U-series dating to calcite accretions has established a minimum age of 37,290 years for underlying red hand stencils, implying execution in the earlier part of the Aurignacian if not beforehand. Together with the series of red disks, one of which has a minimum age of 40,800 years, these motifs lie at the base of the El Castillo parietal stratigraphy. The similarity in technique and colour support the notion that both kinds of artistic manifestations are synchronic and define an initial, non-figurative phase of European cave art. However, available data indicate that hand stencils continued to be painted subsequently. Currently, the youngest, reliably dated examples fall in the Late Gravettian, approximately 27,000 years ago.

Discussion: by Blanca Ochoa and Marcos García-Díez

In a recent paper by Ochoa and García-Díez (2013) the available evidences for a chronology of western Pyrenean Paleolithic cave art are critically analyzed and discussed, and an alternative chronological organization is proposed on the basis of stylistic comparison. In this paper we discuss the critics made to the immediate context dating proposals in Altxerri B, Askondo and Etxeberri by giving the detailed information that has been recently published (Garate and Rios-Garaizar, 2012; Garate et al., 2012; González-Sainz et al., 2013). We also discuss the validity of the stylistic comparisons proposed by Ochoa and García-Díez (2013) for the Gravettian and the Magdalenian art. Finally we discuss the problems for establishing a reliable chronological framework for Paleolithic rock art in this area.

Combining stable isotope (δ13C) of trace gases and aerobiological data to monitor the entry and dispersion of microorganisms in caves

Altamira Cave (north of Spain) contains one of the world's most prominent Paleolithic rock art paintings, which are threatened by a massive microbial colonization of ceiling and walls. Previous studies revealed that exchange rates between the cave and the external atmosphere through the entrance door play a decisive role in the entry and transport of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) and nutrients to the interior of the cave. A spatial-distributed sampling and measurement of carrier (CO2) and trace (CH4) gases and isotopic signal of CO2 (δ(13)C) inside the cave supports the existence of a second connection (active gas exchange processes) with the external atmosphere at or near the Well Hall, the innermost and deepest area of the cave. A parallel aerobiological study also showed that, in addition to the entrance door, there is another connection with the external atmosphere, which favors the transport and increases microorganism concentrations in the Well Hall. This double approach provides a more complete knowledge on cave ventilation and revealed the existence of unknown passageways in the cave, a fact that should be taken into account in future cave management.

A GIS-based methodology to quantitatively define an Adjacent Protected Area in a shallow karst cavity: The case of Altamira cave

Different types of land use are usually present in the areas adjacent to many shallow karst cavities. Over time, the increasing amount of potentially harmful matter and energy, of mainly anthropic origin or influence, that reaches the interior of a shallow karst cavity can modify the hypogeal ecosystem and increase the risk of damage to the Palaeolithic rock art often preserved within the cavity. This study proposes a new Protected Area status based on the geological processes that control these matter and energy fluxes into the Altamira cave karst system.Analysis of the geological characteristics of the shallow karst system shows that direct and lateral infiltration, internal water circulation, ventilation, gas exchange and transmission of vibrations are the processes that control these matter and energy fluxes into the cave. This study applies a comprehensive methodological approach based on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to establish the area of influence of each transfer process.The stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the interior of the cave were determined using 3D Laser Scanning topography combined with classical field work, data gathering, cartography and a porosity–permeability analysis of host rock samples. As a result, it was possible to determine the hydrogeological behavior of the cave.In addition, by mapping and modeling the surface parameters it was possible to identify the main features restricting hydrological behavior and hence direct and lateral infiltration into the cave. These surface parameters included the shape of the drainage network and a geomorphological and structural characterization via digital terrain models. Geological and geomorphological maps and models integrated into the GIS environment defined the areas involved in gas exchange and ventilation processes. Likewise, areas that could potentially transmit vibrations directly into the cave were identified.This study shows that it is possible to define a Protected Area by quantifying the area of influence related to each transfer process. The combined maximum area of influence of all the processes will result in the new Protected Area. This area will thus encompass all the processes that account for most of the matter and energy carried into the cave and will fulfill the criteria used to define the Protected Area. This methodology is based on the spatial quantification of processes and entities of geological origin and can therefore be applied to any shallow karst system that requires protection.

We will be known by the tracks we leave behind: Exotic lithic raw materials, mobility and social networking among the Côa Valley foragers (Portugal)

The aim of this study is to establish different socio-cultural models based on lithic raw material sourcing integrated with regional rock art distributions to infer social behaviours within the context of central Iberian Upper Palaeolithic societies. Specifically, we focus on Upper Palaeolithic hunter–gatherer mobility and social interaction in the Côa Valley. This study relies on a knowledge of regional geology and field work to identify the sources of the lithic raw material found at Côa Valley Upper Palaeolithic sites. We expose the context of use and discard of flint, which is naturally absent from the region, and other local materials. From this, we present a GIS based analysis concerning space, time and least-cost paths travelled. This analysis, along with the environmental data available, forms a baseline to evaluate different anthropological models on hunter–gatherer lithic use, mobility, and social networks. We conclude with a three-level model for social interaction, in the context of aggregation activities between different social meta-groups, which involves embedded procurement, long-distance raw material exchange, and symbolic community, reflected in the largest known open-air Upper Palaeolithic rock art concentration.

Paleolithic cave rock art, animal coloration, and specific animal habitats

Pruvost et al. (1) found a genetic relationship between Upper Paleolithic horse coat color phenotypes, as evident from Paleolithic cave rock art paintings in the Franco-Cantabrian region, and molecular data in fossil horse DNA. They have genotyped coat-color loci in predomestic ancient horses from Siberia, Eastern and Western Europe, and the Iberian Peninsula. Six horses from Western and Eastern Europe, but not from Siberia, shared an allele associated with dappled coat color. Eighteen were genotyped to be bay (reddish-brown), and seven were black. We propose that these genotyped colors, along with other animal colors documented in Paleolithic rock art, are related to specific … [↵][1]1To whom corresponding may be addressed. E-mail: guybar{at}research.haifa.ac.il or levyadun{at}research.haifa.ac.il. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Cave of Forgotten Fungi

Microbiology![Figure][1] CREDIT: MARTIN-SANCHEZ ET AL., ENVIRON. SCI. TECHNOL. 10.1021/ES2040625 (2012) A fungal outbreak has been threatening the 15,000-year-old Paleolithic rock art found in Lascaux Cave, France, since 2001, when intrusive white mycelia growths were first discovered in the cave. Unfortunately, the situation only worsened after varying biocide and mechanical treatments that removed the white overgrowths but resulted in the appearance and spread of large black fungal stains on the walls. Martin-Sanchez et al. isolated the most abundant species of fungi growing in the black stains between 2008 and 2011, before and after biocide treatments, to determine how the community structure has changed over time. Clone libraries constructed from samples taken in 2008 showed that fungal communities were dominated by one species; however, after treatment, fungal diversity substantially increased. In 2010 and 2011, the communities were again different, with the new community dominated by, among others, closely related black yeasts in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Thus, the biocide treatments were at least partially responsible for the new fungal outbreaks. Careful testing of treatment methods or limiting tourism activities near Lascaux and other cave paintings (see Saiz-Jimenez et al. , Policy Forum, 7 October 2011, p. 42) may hopefully prevent a similar fate for other caves. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10.1021/es2040625 (2012). [1]: pending:yes

Convenciones gráficas en el arte parietal del Paleolítico cantábrico: la perspectiva de las figuras zoomorfas

The question of the perspective shown by Paleolithic animal representations has interested researchers since the early twentieth century. Traditionally it has been used to support a phenomenon of linear evolution towards the attainment of expertise in graphic representation. In recent decades, this evolutionary model has been in crisis, questioning what was previously known about the perspective. To address this issue, we have analyzed quantitatively, practically and individually some zoomorphic characteristics of 11 Cantabrian rock art localities. The results argue for the existence of different groups of Palaeolithic rock art sites in the Cantabrian area. Moreover, we propose that the different graphic behaviors of these groups are directly related to the existence of a different chronology for each of them.

A HYBRID APPROACH TO CREATE AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL VISUALIZATION SYSTEM FOR A PALAEOLITHIC CAVE

This paper presents a visualization system based on metric data to manage and disseminate archaeological information on the Internet. We describe the integration of two different types of sensors: laser scanning and close‐range photogrammetry. How we created an automatic and hierarchical approach based on processing and matching the images coming from a digital camera and a terrestrial laser scanner is also shown. This development has created a visualization system combining spherical photographs and georeferences for graphical and numerical data acquired by the sensors. The case study where we have applied this method is the Palaeolithic rock art of the Llonín Cave (Asturias, Spain), which has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and has restricted public access. Our results demonstrate that this tool integrates data, metadata, services and information, which simplifies the location, identification, selection and management of archaeological information.

FOR CAVE’S ART, AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE

THE CAVERN that houses Spain’s most celebrated prehistoric art is on the mend from a microbial infestation that closed it to the public. A push from regional government officials to reopen Altamira Cave to visitors has researchers who worked to improve its condition worried that their efforts will be undone ( Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1206788). But like the bacterial colonies dotting the storied cave’s walls, the scientific and ethical issues that will determine its fate are colored in shades of gray. Nestled underground near a village in northern Spain, Altamira Cave contains astonishingly lifelike renderings of fawns, horses, and bison painted on its ceilings. The multicolored likenesses, more than 14,000 years old, are recognized as a pinnacle of Paleolithic rock art. The United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared Altamira Cave a World Heritage Site in 1985. As Altamira became a tourist hub, ensuring its preservation became problematic. Officials closed the cav...

The Importance of Honey Consumption in Human Evolution

It has been suggested that honey may have been an important food source for early members of the genus Homo, yet the importance of meat and savanna plant foods continue to be stressed as the most relevant foods in dietary reconstructions. Here, the importance of honey and bee larvae in hominin diets is explored. Ethnographic reports, examples of Paleolithic rock art, and evidence from non-human primates are used to show that early hominins likely targeted beehives using the Oldowan tool kit. The consumption of honey and bee larvae likely provided significant amounts of energy, supplementing meat and plant foods. The ability to find and exploit beehives using stone tools may have been an innovation that allowed early Homo to nutritionally out-compete other species and may have provided critical energy to fuel the enlarging hominin brain.