Palaeolithic Rock Art Research Articles

Stability Assessment of the Maltravieso Cave (Caceres, Spain) Through Engineering Rock Mass Classification, Empirical, Numerical and Remote Techniques

Caves have long fascinated humanity, serving as shelters, canvases for artistic expression and now significant attractions in the realm of tourism. Among these remarkable geological formations, the Maltravieso cave in Extremadura, Spain, stands out for its rich archaeological and paleontological heritage, particularly its collection of Paleolithic rock art. Despite its cultural significance, there is a notable dearth of studies addressing the stability of the cave from an engineering perspective. This article presents a pioneering study aimed at assessing the stability of the Maltravieso cave through a multidisciplinary approach: using empirical geomechanical classifications such as the Q Index, Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and the recently formulated Cave Geomechanical Index (CGI), alongside other techniques like Structure from Motion (SfM), 2D numerical modeling and 3D wedge analysis. This research aims to fill the gap in our opinion of cave stability assessment. By combining field data collection with sophisticated analysis methods, this study seeks to provide valuable insights into the geomechanical properties of the Maltravieso cave and validate a simple yet effective methodology for evaluating the stability of natural caves. This work not only contributes to the body of knowledge regarding cave geomechanics but also underscores the importance of preserving these invaluable cultural and geological treasures for future generations.

Seeing is believing: An Augmented Reality application for Palaeolithic rock art

By developing new recording methodologies, current rock art studies generate a large amount of graphic information about sites (tracings, photographs, three-dimensional reproductions) providing visibility of this fragile and little-known heritage, whose accessibility is often difficult or impossible for the general public. In addition, many rock art depictions are challenging to observe, due to the very nature of the artistic entities (fine engravings or faded paintings in karst environments or open-air sites with poor or changing light conditions), or to conservation problems derived from natural factors such as erosion and geological and biological processes, as well as from anthropic factors. These conditions make rock art depictions nearly indistinguishable in many places and on many objects today, except for experts. This difficulty of accessing and visualising rock art heritage, located in fragile environments and often challenging places such as caves or difficult-to-reach open-air sites, makes the information and knowledge generated by investigation of this heritage asset difficult to transfer to society in general, which is frequently unaware of the priceless value of this heritage. The present study proposes generating several mechanisms to transfer the results of research, restitution and documentation of rock art to society in general. An AR (Augmented Reality) application has been developed using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology to address current challenges in implementing AR technologies in low-light environments. So far, this app has been developed in a Proof-of-Concept project at Spanish archaeological sites such as Hornos de la Peña (Cantabria), Domingo García (Segovia) and La Salud (Salamanca). This application will be particularly interesting for sites currently visited with or without a guide, allowing user interactivity and real-time reconstruction, for example, of the visibility of graphic motifs.

Chronology of Upper Paleolithic human activities recorded in a stalagmite at Points Cave (Aiguèze, Gard, France)

AbstractIn this article, we propose an approach to reconstruct the timing of human activity at Points Cave, an Upper Paleolithic rock art site located in the middle of the Ardèche River Gorge (Rhône valley, France), based on the dating and characterisation of a stalagmite containing soot. Points Cave (‘Grotte aux Points’ in French), also called the ‘little sister of Chauvet Cave’, is famous for its parietal art including a series of dots made of palm prints. A large number of stalagmites formed in the cave during the last 500 ka. However, quarrying of the cave floors during historic times led to the partial destruction of the sedimentary deposits, and many of the stalagmites were found lying on the floor. In particular, one of them (STM‐18‐04) showed the presence of at least four dark layers in cross‐section, which appeared as possible remnants of fire‐related activities in the cave. Despite being present at the same site, no other specific link between STM‐18‐04 and the rock art has been documented. This stalagmite, however, allows us to identify phases of human presence, located at the cave entrance. To do so, we performed a series of analyses to determine its period of growth and the nature of the dark layers that it contains. Scanning electron microscopy and Raman microspectroscopy confirmed that the dark layers include soot, and uranium‐series dating indicated that the fire events occurred, respectively, around 14,200–14,100 and 12,500 years ago, in agreement with the radiocarbon ages of charcoal specimens recovered from the excavation areas nearby. We thus highlighted phases of human activity at the site during the Upper Magdalenian and/or beginning of the Epipaleolithic. By comparing our results with the regional paleoclimatic record, the soot layers trapped in the stalagmite appear to be synchronous with two cold periods, likely the Older Dryas and the Younger Dryas.

Adaptive response of prokaryotic communities to extreme pollution flooding in a Paleolithic rock art cave (Pindal Cave, northern Spain)

A flood event affecting Pindal Cave, a UNESCO World Heritage site, introduced a substantial amount of external sediments and waste into the cave. This event led to the burial of preexisting sediments, altering the biogeochemical characteristics of the cave ecosystem by introducing heightened levels of organic matter, nitrogen compounds, phosphorus, and heavy metals. The sediments included particulate matter and waste from a cattle farm located within the water catchment area of the cavity, along with diverse microorganisms, reshaping the cave microbial community. This study addresses the ongoing influence of a cattle farm on the cave ecosystem and aims to understand the adaptive responses of the underground microbial community to the sudden influx of waste allochthonous material. Here, we show that the flood event had an immediate and profound effect on the cave microbial community, marked by a significant increase in methanogenic archaea, denitrifying bacteria, and other microorganisms commonly associated with mammalian intestinal tracts. Furthermore, our findings reveal that one year after the flood, microorganisms related to the flood decreased, while the increase in inorganic forms of ammonium and nitrate suggests potential nitrification, aligning with increased abundances of corresponding functional genes involved in nitrogen cycling. The results reveal that the impact of pollution was neither recent nor isolated, and it was decisive in stopping livestock activity near the cave. The influence of the cattle farm has persisted since its establishment over the impluvium area, and this influence endures even a year after the flood. Our study emphasizes the dynamic interplay between natural events, anthropogenic activities, and microbial communities, offering insights into the resilience of cave ecosystems. Understanding microbial adaptation in response to environmental disturbances, as demonstrated in this cave ecosystem, has implications for broader ecological studies and underscores the importance of considering temporal dynamics in conservation efforts.

«Красный плафон» в дальнем зале Игнатиевской пещеры: новая документация

In 1980, V.T. Petrin, S.E. Chairkin and V.N. Shirokov discovered Upper Paleolithic images in Ignatievskaya Cave. Valery Petrin's expedition was exploring the site from 1980 to 1986. Since 1995, Vladimir Shirokov has been continuously researching the cave. The final monograph by Valery Petrin was issued in Russian in 1992 and displayed only black & white photographs, contact copies and sketches of ancient drawings made with a scale grid. Later in 1997, this monograph was published overseas in French and complemented with several additional color photographs. Since 1995, shooting color negative and positive films has become more affordable. A selection of a significant number of frame-by-frame slides by V.N. Shirokov and V.E. Shchelinsky from Ignatievskaya, Kapova and Muradymovskaya 2 caves was published in Germany in 1999 as a book about Paleolithic rock art of the Southern Urals. In Russia in 2013, a monograph with color illustrations was published to tell about the decorated Southern Ural caves of the Upper Paleolithic. However, it displayed only the results of time-lapse photography. Significant sections, such as the Red Panel and the Black Panel (names given by V.T. Petrin) from the Far Hall of the cave, were copied from the sketches using a scale grid. Currently, the shortcomings of these copies can be corrected by combining time-lapse mosaic and photogrammetric surveys of the ceiling sections in Far Hall of Ignatievskaya Cave. The ‘panel’ on the ceiling should be names ‘plafond’, therefore the article suggests changing the name of the Red Panel to the Red Plafond. Graphic patterns and graphic units were counted in this location of the ceiling of the Far Hall. In total, according to the new documentation, there are 163 graphic units on the Red Plafond. In 2018 a Canon D6 camera with a Tokina 16-28/F2,8 lens was used to make photographs. The interior and drawings in the Far Hall were illuminated by LED panels that do not emit thermal radiation. Better visualization of the pictorial patterns and their color filtering was ensured with Adobe Photoshop® and ImageJ with the DStretch® plugin.

Бага Ойгорын палеолитын хадны зургийн дурсгал

In 2004, Ts. Turbat made a discovery of a significant site of engraved rock art, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. Situated on the south bank of the Baga Oigor River, this remarkable site lies within the protective zone of the World Heritage site of the Mongolian Altai rock art complex. The Baga Oigor-VI complex boasts an impressive array of 41 depictions featuring animals such as horses, ibex, argali, deer, cattle, and snakes from the Upper Paleolithic period, complemented by an additional 16 images originating from the Bronze Age, constituting a total of 57 images. Noteworthy is the superior preservation status of this monument, eclipsing that of comparable sites and presenting unparalleled clarity in visibility. The scarcity of open Paleolithic rock art sites across the globe that bear resemblance to this exceptional find underscores its singular nature. The geographically nearest analogous site of significance is the Gobustan monument in the South Caucasus followed by largest concentration of similar monuments in Iberian peninsula. Beyond the renowned ochre paintings of the Khoid Tsenkher Cave, an extensive exploration of carved rock art open air monuments is underway, elevating the Mongolian Altai region to the status of a pivotal hub in the realm of ancient art. The sheer abundance and widespread distribution of these monuments contribute to its characterization as a veritable “cradle of prehistoric art”.

Монгол Алтайд илэрсэн палеолитын үеийн алганы урвуу дүрслэл (Хөх булгийн хөмөг, Говь-Алтай аймаг)

The discovery of Paleolithic ochre paintings in the vicinity Khokh Bulag rock shelter of the Tonkhil Soum in Govi-Altai Aimag, nestled on the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains, reveals a diverse array of figurative, animal and geometric depictions. A total of 21 figures, including 13 hand stencils are meticulously created utilizing red and black ochre pigments. Predominantly featured at this site are hand stencils, executed in an archaic style, typically fashioned using Paleolithic techniques. Additionally, the presence of human and geometric motifs within this shelter draws noteworthy parallels with Paleolithic rock art findings across the globe. This discovery stands as a momentous revelation, marking the inaugural appearance of Paleolithic-style hand stencils within Central Asian rock art, thus underscoring its considerable historical and cultural importance.

Animals hidden in plain sight: stereoscopic recording of Palaeolithic rock art at La Pasiega cave, Cantabria

Cantabrian cave art is familiar from photographs reproduced in textbooks, but these two-dimensional images do not capture the irregularities of the rock surfaces on which animals and other designs were painted or engraved. Here, the authors use stereoscopic photography to review the parietal art of La Pasiega cave. By documenting the uneven surfaces of the cave's walls alongside painted and engraved marks, they identify new animal figures and reinterpret others, previously thought to be partial representations, as complete. The results show the positioning of animal figures to make use of concave/convex surfaces and rock edges to define the outlines of animals, reinforcing the need to record and interpret cave art three-dimensionally.

New insights into the structure, microbial diversity and ecology of yellow biofilms in a Paleolithic rock art cave (Pindal Cave, Asturias, Spain)

In the absence of sunlight, caves harbor a great diversity of microbial colonies to extensive biofilms with different sizes and colors visible to the naked eye. One of the most widespread and visible types of biofilm are those with yellow hues that can constitute a serious problem for the conservation of cultural heritage in many caves, such as Pindal Cave (Asturias, Spain). This cave, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO for its Paleolithic parietal art, shows a high degree of development of yellow biofilms that represents a real threat to the conservation of painted and engraved figures. This study aims to: 1) identify the microbial structures and the most characteristic taxa composing the yellow biofilms, 2) seek the linked microbiome reservoir primarily contributing to their growth; 3) seed light on the driving vectors that contribute to their formation and determine the subsequent proliferation and spatial distribution. To achieve this goal, we used amplicon-based massive sequencing, in combination with other techniques such as microscopy, in situ hybridization and environmental monitoring, to compare the microbial communities of yellow biofilms with those of drip waters, cave sediments and exterior soil. The results revealed microbial structures related to the phylum Actinomycetota and the most characteristic bacteria in yellow biofilms, represented by the genera wb1-P19, Crossiella, Nitrospira, and Arenimonas. Our findings suggest that sediments serve as potential reservoirs and colonization sites for these bacteria that can develop into biofilms under favorable environmental and substrate conditions, with a particular affinity for speleothems and rugged-surfaced rocks found in condensation-prone areas. This study presents an exhaustive study of microbial communities of yellow biofilms in a cave, which could be used as a procedure for the identification of similar biofilms in other caves and to design effective conservation strategies in caves with valuable cultural heritage.

First Data from the Prehistoric Site Complex of Cueva del Arco (Murcia, Spain)

The southern Iberian Peninsula is a key area for understanding the timing and patterns of the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition. Recently, the excavation and study of new sites have provided new insights on this topic. The aim of this paper is to introduce Cueva del Arco, a site complex featuring distinct caves and rock shelters. Cueva del Arco is located at a short distance from the Almadenes gorge (Cieza, Spain) and preserves both Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits and assemblages, as well as rock art. Despite being known since the 1990s for its Palaeolithic rock art, systematic fieldwork was never undertaken at the site until recently. We here report the first results of a research programme that includes the systematic excavation of several cavities belonging to the Cueva del Arco complex, focusing on the location and context of the site, its stratigraphy and chronology, and site formation. Research at the site is still ongoing, but preliminary results suggest that the data from Cueva del Arco will provide new clues to the current debate on the transition from Neanderthals to anatomically modern humans in southern Europe.

The Upper Paleolithic rock art of Ukraine between here and nowhere

The complex of Kamyana Mohyla is the westernmost rock art location of the Eurasian Steppe and the largest accumulation of cave art sites in the Eastern Europe. So far it has been believed that the complex contains the Upper Paleolithic cave art images as well as portable art collection that resemble the instances of Upper Paleolithic worldview. Though this belief lacked the support of archaeological context and chronological attribution it remained neither proved nor disputed. However, the application of digital photogrammetric tools allowed to perform the sub-millimeter surface modeling of the rock art objects and to re-examine and reconsider the engravings that were previously attributed to Pleistocene. The modeling results presented in this article revealed the complete absence of figurative images for the collection of portable art specimens and the dubious character of those for the cave art one. Therefore, the whole collection should be reconsidered, studied and attributed according to the state of the art and contemporary archaeological record in the region. This contribution attempts to think over the possible Upper Paleolithic origin of the motifs from Kamyana Mohyla in the light of new data and proposes three hypotheses towards the understanding of the rock art assemblage from one of the caves in the complex.

Beyond images: the external archaeological context of Palaeolithic rock art (EAC). A case study from the Nalón river basin (northern Iberia)

In this study of the location and physical characteristics of the surroundings of a series of decorated caves in the Nalón river basin in Asturias (northern Iberia), the spatial analysis, which included fieldwork and the use of GIS, has defined the external archaeological context (EAC) of pre-Magdalenian art in that area. The spatial information has been integrated with the study of the rock art in order to observe tendencies that are statistically quantifiable by means of multidimensional scaling (MDS), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and property fitting. The study of the potential association between the location of the caves and the rock art constitutes a new approach within Palaeolithic cave art research. First, the sample of decorated caves was analysed to discriminate different situations as regards the total number of representations, relative importance of figurative and non-figurative motifs, and the type of figurative representations. Second, the relationship between the EAC and graphic activity was tested. The location of the decorated caves does not fit a homogeneously distributed pattern owing to marked contrasts in the spatial variables. The greater or lesser ease of access to the location of the cave art sites does not condition the type of graphic expression. Instead, visibility is clearly associated with the total number of representations, and particularly with the number of non-figurative representations. However, this particular association between high visibility and non-figurative motifs should be nuanced because the issues of the conservation and interpretation of the exterior engravings mostly affect the identification of the figurative representations.

Deterioration Processes on Prehistoric Rock Art Induced by Mining Activity (Arenaza Cave, N Spain)

Arenaza Cave is located in Vizcaya (N Spain) and contains important Palaeolithic rock art representations. This cave belongs to an active karstic system developed on Lower Cretaceous limestones, mainly consisting of micrites and biomicrites with abundant pyrite moulds. The paintings are made directly on the host rock or on thin stalagmitic calcite crusts. Cretaceous limestones in this area contain important iron ore deposits, which have been mined by subsurface and surface-mining methods since the beginning of the 20th century. Mining activities have induced significant changes in the karstic drainage pattern and in the endo and exokarstic morphologies of the Arenaza karstic system, directly affecting the state of conservation of the prehistoric paintings. Thus, in addition to natural process of deterioration, the enlargement of the limestone fissure system as a result of blasting-induced vibrations seems to be the responsible for changes in the rates of water-rock interactions and of the formation of botryoidal gypsum concretions on the rock surface. The final result is the activation and acceleration of detachment processes and the increase of irreversible deterioration processes in the cave.

Visualizing childhood in Upper Palaeolithic societies: Experimental and archaeological approach to artists’ age estimation through cave art hand stencils

This paper presents rock art as a collective action in which different strata of society took part, including children and subadults. Until recent decades archaeology of childhood has not been in the main focus of the archaeological research, much less the participation of those children in the artistic activity. The present study approaches the palaeodemography of artists in the decorated caves through the paleolithic rock art itself. The approximate age of these individuals has been calculated through the biometric analysis of hand stencils in the caves of Fuente del Salín, Castillo, La Garma, Maltravieso and Fuente del Trucho, using 3D photogrammetric models as reference. The results have been compared with a modern reference population in order to assign the Palaeolithic hands to certain age groups. It has been demonstrated the presence of hand stencil motifs belongs to infants, children and juveniles, revealing this stratum's importance in the artistic activity.

Contribution and limits of portable X-ray fluorescence for studying Palaeolithic rock art: a case study at the Points cave (Aiguèze, Gard, France)

Analysing the colouring matter used to make prehistoric rock art is essential in order to retrace the chaînes opératoires involved. Despite the well-documented limitations of portable analysis systems, the need to conserve rock art led us to reassess the capabilities of portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometry. Thus, we compared in-situ and laboratory analyses of materials from the Points cave (France), and laboratory pXRF results with analyses obtained using other methods and with reference samples. Results confirmed that current pXRF systems are unable to provide data suitable for elucidating the chaînes opératoires of ferruginous colouring matter.

Cova Eirós (Galicia, Spain): The ‘Finisterre’ of Paleolithic cave art

Our knowledge about Paleolithic art has been changing substantially and new discoveries and dates are modifying some traditionally accepted considerations. In this context, the geographic spread and the end of this graphic-artistic cycle are two of the main topics of the current scientific debate. The discovery and study of rock art in Cova Eirós, located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, whose walls display geometric / stylized animals with linear interior fills, widens the territory of Paleolithic rock art in North Iberia beyond the traditional Franco-Cantabrian core. This find is framed in the successive discoveries made in the last 20 years that break with the perception of the Franco-Cantabrian region as being the core of the Paleolithic art. Moreover, the formal and stylistic features of some motifs from Cova Eirós allow to ascribe them to the final stages of the Paleolithic-style portable and rock art, classified as Style V or fini-Paleolithic; a pan-European tradition that began ~ 12,000–11,500 BP and lasted up to ~9,500–9,000 BP, in correspondence with the last hunter-gatherer groups.

Quantifying accessibility to Palaeolithic rock art: Methodological proposal for the study of human transit in Atxurra Cave (Northern Spain)

The systematic evaluation of accessibility to different sectors in caves with Palaeolithic rock art is crucial to interpret the contexts of prehistoric human activity that took place inside them, especially if focused on the areas that are harder to reach. 3D models have been employed in a GIS to process spatial information, calculate numerical cost values and estimate optimal transit routes or needed times to reach several sectors inside a cave, based on morphological features and movement types. These have been obtained through empirical observations and experimental archaeology. Previous geomorphological studies are necessary to determine any geological or anthropic changes that may have occurred in the endokarst since its use in the Upper Palaeolithic. The method has been applied in Atxurra Cave, with satisfactory results, and the accessibility to different archaeological sectors has been compared objectively. This will enable the objective and quantitative assessment of accessibility to the deep sectors of other prehistoric caves in the future, and thus establish recurring or specific patterns among the human groups that created the Ice Age art.

Fluvial dynamics and palaeolithic settlement: new data from the Côa Valley (Portugal)

The geomorphological context of the Côa Valley open-air Palaeolithic rock art offers a unique opportunity to analyse its stratigraphic relationship with preserved Quaternary deposits and to reconstruct those that may have since disappeared. Litho-stratigraphic units, discontinuities and their architecture are interpreted in the context of the valley’s evolution and its environment. The spatial distribution of rock art panels, chronological attribution of the rock art and their geomorphological context can help us to reconstruct the topography of the valley at the time of its production and to identify where rock art panels could be buried, as well as to establish their chronology.

The Easternmost European Palaeolithic Artists: Iconography and Graphic Features at Kapova Cave (Southern Urals, Russia)

Palaeolithic rock art is one of the most distinctive cultural traits of Upper Palaeolithic societies in Europe. Traditionally restricted to South-western Europe, especially to the Franco-Cantabrian province, in recent years, the geographic distribution of this phenomenon has noticeably expanded. Several years before these discoveries, the first decorated site found beyond southern Europe was Kapova cave, in Russia. This site, at the edge of the distribution area of European Palaeolithic art and far away from other cave sanctuaries, is key to define and understand potential long-distance cultural networks during the Upper Palaeolithic. In this paper, we present the first comprehensive inventory of the artworks, a renewed documentation of the graphic units (including the first digital tracings), the spatial distribution and the stylistic analysis of the different motifs. This led us to understand the role of Kapova within the Palaeolithic symbolism and to better integrate it in the Palaeolithic cultural dynamics.

Hidden images in Atxurra Cave (Northern Spain): A new proposal for visibility analyses of Palaeolithic rock art in subterranean environments

Visibility has been the subject of study in Palaeolithic rock art research ever since the discovery of Altamira Cave in 1879. Nevertheless, until now, the different approaches have been based on subjective assessments, due to computational limitations for a more objective methodology. Nowadays, cutting-edge technologies such as GIS allow us to address spatial studies in caves and overcome their geomorphologically complex and closed characteristics. Here we describe an innovative methodology that uses computing tools available to any researcher to study the viewsheds of the graphic units in decorated caves. We have tested its validity on the recently discovered rock art ensemble of Atxurra Cave, in Northern Spain. We demonstrate that this technology (GIS), widely used in other fields of archaeology, especially in outdoor studies, is also useable in caverns, taking into account the complex morphologies -ceilings and diverse floor-levels, for example. These programmes have also allowed us to consider the lighting systems used by the prehistoric groups inside the cave, as well as various data previously estimated by other authors, such as the height of individuals during the European LUP. The dynamism of these tools −2.5D-, as well as the advancement of new 3D GIS technologies, will allow in the future remarkable progress in these types of structural studies for a better understanding of Palaeolithic cave art phenomena.