Pakihi Soils Research Articles

Changes in soil quality following humping/hollowing and flipping of pakihi soils on the West Coast, South Island New Zealand

Humping/hollowing and flipping are land development practices widely used on the West Coast to overcome waterlogging constraints to pasture production. However, there is very limited information about how the resulting "new" soils function and how their properties change over time following these extreme modifications. We hypothesised that soil quality will improve in response to organic matter inputs from plants and excreta, which will in turn increase nutrient availability. We tested this hypothesis by quantifying the soil organic matter and nutrient content of soils at different stages of development after modification. We observed improvements in soil quality with increasing time following soil modification under both land development practices. Total soil C and N values were very low following flipping, but over 8 years these values had increased nearly five-fold. Other indicators of organic matter quality such as hot water extractable C (HWC) and anaerobically mineralisable N (AMN) showed similar increases. With large capital applications of superphosphate fertiliser to flipped soils in the first year and regular applications of maintenance fertiliser, Olsen P levels also increased from values

Pasture production responses to fertiliser on renovated West Coast pakihi soils

Mowing trials were carried out to determine the rates of fertiliser nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S) and frequency of application of K for maximum pasture production on extremely infertile humped and hollowed pakihi soils in the Grey Valley (Souters and Sommervilles dairy units), and flipped soils at Cape Foulwind (Bassetts dairy unit) under high annual rainfall (2000 - 3000 mm) on the West Coast. In the first measurement year, there was no significant increase in pasture production above 480 kg N/ha, 56 kg P/ha, 360 kg K/ha and 136 kg S/ha at Souters and Bassetts and a significant increase in pasture production up to 600 kg N/ha, 56 kg P/ha, 360 kg K/ha and 140 kg S/ha at Sommervilles. In the second year, there was no significant pasture production increase above 480 kg N/ ha, 56 kg P/ha, 360 kg K/ha and 136 kg S/ha at all sites. The high N, K and S rates were required because nutrients were not being recycled through returned clippings. This situation would be similar to the early stages of dairy management on these units where only a small proportion of pasture would receive recycled nutrients through return of excreta. Over time, a larger proportion of the pasture would be affected by excreta and fertiliser nutrient requirements would be expected to decrease. There was no increase in pasture production from applying potassium chloride in more than four applications per year at Souters and Bassetts in the first year, but a significant increase in pasture production from eight compared with four applications per year at Sommervilles, where soil QT (quick test) K levels were lower than at the other two sites. Keywords: flipped, hump and hollowed, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur

A review of pastoral research carried out on the West Coast of the South Island: 1960-2000

The pastoral research carried out on the West Coast of the South Island between 1960 and 2000 could be divided into three categories; nutrient requirements for pasture, pasture establishment and growth and animal performance. Because of the varied fertility of the soil types present, research on nutrient requirement was the largest category. In the 1960's, requirements for pasture establishment and early growth on pakihi (podzol) soils of lime, phosphorus (P), elemental sulphur (S), potassium (K), copper (Cu) and molybdenum were identified. This work was extended to determine P, S and K maintenance requirements of pakihi, recent alluvial and brown terrace soils in the 1970's and 1980's. Elemental S was shown to be the most cost effective S fertiliser under annual rainfall greater than 2000 mm and the tetraphenyl boron (TBK) test was calibrated to measure the supply of nonexchangeable K on recent soils. A series of trials were carried out to determine pasture yield responses to fertiliser nitrogen (N) on recent soils in the early 1970's. Later work in the mid 1980's showed that measurement of accumulated soil and air temperature from early spring did not improve the accuracy in prediction of pasture yield responses to N. On the poorly drained, acid and infertile pakihi soils, the interactions between seed coating and lime were measured and the yield advantages of Maku Lotus and Yorkshire fog as alternative pasture species to ryegrass and white clover demonstrated. Rate of pasture growth trials determined the seasonal pattern of pasture production on a range of sites from 1970 to 1995. On recent soils that could not be moled, gravel moling and hump and hollowing substantially increased pasture production during a spring with high rainfall (2000 mm). In the early 1980's, dairy grazing trials showed that lengthening the grazing rotation during autumn increased winter and spring pasture production. For sheep, preferential grazing of thin ewes from weaning to mating increased overall ovulation rate. The density of sheep dung patches was shown to increase with winter stocking intensity on a pakihi soil. Surveys of dairy farm practice established an association between effectiveness of magnesium (Mg) supplementation of dairy cows and reducing the incidence of metabolic disorders. Many dose response trials established the requirement by dairy calves for selenium (Se), cobalt (Co) and Cu on different West Coast soils. Close contact between West Coast scientists, advisors and farmers ensured that local research information was efficiently communicated with a resulting high level of farmer adoption. Keywords: animal management, fertility, lime, nitrogen, pasture establishment, phosphorus, potassium, soils, South Island, sulphur, trace elements, West Coast

DYNAMICS AND ECONOMICS OF PASTURE PRODUCTION RESPONSES TO A REPRESENTATIVE RANGE OF PHOSPHORUS AND SULPHUR FERTILISERS

Two trials in the Nelson province with 6 alternative phosphate(P) fertilisers and 4 sulphur (S) fertilisers measured initial and residual responses ovar 3 seasons and used the results to determine appropriate topdressing frequencies, from which economic implications could be determined. P and S treatments were applied at 50 kg total element/ha for all alternatives in a randomised block design with 4 replicate.s Appropriate basal fertillsers were applied, and plots were mown at intervals for 2% years. Superphosphate was an effective P fertiliser at both sites, but at the lower rainfall yellow brown earth site at Dovedale the intermediate solubility P fertiliser Longlife Super and Phospate PARPR and the low solubility P fertilisers Sechura and North Carolina RPR caught up with Superphosphate by years 2 and 3. At the high rainfall Collingwood site on a pakihi soil Superphosphate and Longlife super responded significantly in year 1 only while there were no significant responses to the other 4 P fertilisers at any stage. Gypsum S was an effective source of S at both sites, but tended to be exceeded by elemental S forms at Collingwood. There were however, no significant differences between the four S ferfilisers at either site. The economic analysis of all products, assuming a PS requirement of 1 : l and appropriate spreading frequencies, shows Superphosphate to be the most cost effective at the time of analysis. Keywords: yellow-brown earth, pakihi. cost effectiveness, phosphorus, sulphur, fertilisers, economics

Phosphorus requirements of grazed pasture on pakihi and recent soils of the South Island west coast

Abstract Trials on an Addison gley podzol and a Hokitika recent soil determined the production responses to applied superphosphate of pasture under sheep grazing over a 5-year period. Rates of 20 and 22 kg effective (i.e., citric acid soluble) P/ha resulted in 86 and 98% of maximum pasture production for the Addison and Hokitika soils, respectively. These rates were similar to predicted maintenance rates of 19 and 25 kg effective P/ha from the Computerised Fertiliser Advisory Scheme of the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Pasture production was maintained at Olsen P levels of 8 μg/ml for the Addison soil and 22 μg/ml for the Hokitika soil, differing from the predicted Olsen P level of 17 μg/ml. When compared with earlier mowing-only trials with clippings returned, the use of short grazing durations at high sheep stocking densities and 4–6 week regrowth intervals resulted in similar pasture yield responses to added phosphorus.

Vitamin B12and copper in blood serum and liver of hoggets in relation to cobalt and copper status of west coast South Island soils and pastures

Abstract This study assessed the status of cobalt (Co) and copper (Cu) in yellow-brown earth (YBE) and pakihi soils, in pasture growing on these soils, and in serum and liver of lambs grazing for a year on the pasture. There had been no application of Co or Cu to YBE soils except in one instance, whereas these elements had been applied to pakihi soils at various times within the previous eight years since pasture establishment. Co in pasture was usually in the ‘adequate’ reference range category, although most of the soils were in the ‘responsive’ category. Cu in pasture was in the ‘marginal’ reference range. Co (as vitamin B12) was usually adequate in serum and in liver. Cu was marginal in serum, but adequate in liver. There was only one pakihi soil — the Moana soil at Bell Hill — where, despite recent topdressing with CoSO4, Co levels in liver were consistently in the marginal range.

Effect of seed coating on establishment and yield of grasses on a West Coast pakihi soil

Abstract Coating grass seed with a lime reverted superphosphate/tale magnesite mix improved the establishment and yield of ‘Grasslands Ruanui’ and ‘Grasslands Manawa’ ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) on a pakihi soil, but had no effect on the establishment and yield of ‘Grasslands Apanui’ cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) or ‘Grasslands Kahu’ timothy (Phleum pratense L.).

Establishment of grasses on West Coast pakihi soils

Abstract The effect of time of sowing grass, rate of lime application, and coating of clover seed on pasture establishment and yield was investigated on 2 acid, low fertility West Coast pakihi soils. The grasses sown were ‘Grasslands Manawa’ ryegrass (Lolium perenne), ‘Grasslands Apanui’ cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), and ‘Grasslands Kahu’ timothy (Phleum pratense), and the clovers were ‘Grasslands Huia’ white clover (Trifolium repens) and ‘Grasslands Pawera’ red clover, Trifolium pratense). The clover component of the pasture was sown in spring 1975. Grasses sown in the autumn after the spring sowing of the clover, established better than grasses sown with the clover. However, total pasture yield in the following year was not improved by delaying grass sowing until the autumn. Coating the clover seed had little effect on grass establishment and yield or on total pasture yield. Reducing the initial lime application from 3 000 kg/ha to 1 000 kg/ha generally had a detrimental effect.

Influence of trial management on pasture response to potassium on a pakihi soil

Abstract A grazing trial showed no significant responses in soil potassium, pasture yield, or animal performance to applications of potassium chloride above 50 kg/ha on an Addision soil at Bald Hill near Westport, South Island, New Zealand. Continuous mowing plot trials however, showed large pasture yield responses to applied KCl regardless of whether clippings were returned or discarded. An occasional cuts technique with grazing between cuts showed a reduced response. It is suggested that the small plot trials over-estimated the K requirements of pasture on this soil and that the grazing trial demonstrated the efficiency of K recycling under the management used in the trial.

ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF PAKIHI SOILS

The development of the West Coast's pakihi soils for pastoral purposes is a relatively simple process but involves several essential factors. Access, drainage, weed control and fencing must all be provided prior to oversowing of lime, fertilizer and seed. The management of pakihi soils, while essentially similar to that of alluviai or recent soil types, also has some additional problems. The most important decisions to be made are the type and breed of stock, the lambing and/or calving date, and matching the stocking rate as best as possible to the pasture growth in your area. The right decisions coupled with good pasture management will result in a productive pasture, a good stocking rate, and good returns from these stock.

THE EFFECT OF LIME, PHOSPHATE AND POTASSIUM ON THE GROWTH OF WHITE CLOVER- AND LOTUS- BASED PASTURES ON PAKIHI SOILS

A series of trials was conducted on a Mawhera gley podzol to investigate the comparative establishment and yield of white clover/ryegrass and lotus/Yorkshire fog pastures at different rates of lime, phosphate and potassium. Lotus/Yorkshire fog was superior in yield to white clover/ryegrass at all rates of lime and fertilizer, in the second and third year after sowing. This superiority was more marked at low rates of lime. The potential role of lotus as a pioneer species on pakihi soils is discussed.

Effect of lime and phosphate on lotus and white clover establishment and yield on pakihi soils

Abstract The establishment and yield of three lotus cultivars (‘Grasslands Maku’, ‘4703’, ‘4712’) and ‘Grasslands Huia’ white clover were compared under two initial application rates of lime (500 and 2000 kg/ha) and phosphate (40 and 100 kg/ha) on an Okarito soil at Mawheraiti, near Reefton. At the low rate of lime, ‘G 4703’ and ‘Maku’ were higher-yielding than ‘Huia’, but at the high rate these cultivars were similar in yield. The yield from ‘G 4712’ was substantially lower than from other lotus cultivars at all rates of lime and phosphate. The role of lotus as a pioneer species when sown at low rates of lime and phosphate on pakihi soils is discussed.

I. “Pakihi” soils

Abstract The results of subtractive tests confirmed the findings of field trials, that multiple plantnutrient deficiencies exist in the Addison pakihi soil. A more significant feature of this survey was that the generally impoverished condition of “pakihi” soils was independent of “soil type”; in fact among the five agriculturally important soil types studied, major element deficiencies were almost identical, and the only appreciable differences were in the minorelement deficiencies. This result justifies the general use of a virtually complete fertiliser mixture, as for example the ‘Standard Pakihi Fertiliser Mixture’ already in restricted use. A need, found in field trials, for liming before the use of fertiliser was also confirmed. Further qualitative studies of nutrient deficiencies over a wider area are needed, particularly of minor-element deficiencies, among which there may be some variation according to soil type; and quantitative studies are needed at a number of different sites to decide the amount of a complete fertiliser mixture worth applying.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF PAKIHI SOILS ON THE WEST COAST

Experimental results on development of pakihi soils are presented. Coating of inoculated white clover seed had no effect on establishment or initial growth. Liming had no effect on establishment but increased initial growth. The improved lotus cultivar G4703 outyielded white clover at low rates of lime and phosphate but firstyear dry matter yields were very low. The use of less soluble forms of potassium and phosphate on the low retention pakihi soils had no effect on dry matter yield. There W'BS a useful pasture yieid response up to 75 kg P/ha but the response diminished from 30 to 75 kg P/ha. Pasture yield responses to potassium occurred up to 175 kg K,/ha using the mowing and clippings returned measurement technique but only up to 25 kg K/ha where the response was measured under grazing. Elemental sulphur at 60 kg,/ha significantly increased pasture yield and restored a deteriorated pasture in one trial. A simple technique based on aerial oversowing has evolved for establishing pastures on pakihi soils. Given proper management, the resulting pastures are high-producing. The conversion of grass to beef and sheep products has been demonstrated on the Pakihi Demonstration Farm near Westport and by the Department of Lands and Survey, but dairying is yet to be tested. The economy of the West Coast will be considerably enhanced by progressive development of the pakihi soils.

OVERSOWN CLOVERS ON PAKIHI LANDS

G. DE S. BAYLIS, Fields Instructor with the Department of Agriculture, carried out the first experiment on pakihi soils in Golden Bay at Onekaka in 1910 and established pasture following cultivation. In 1912. Baylis stated, "The possibilities of this pakihi land have already been demonstrated and the rightly directed energy of the settlers is the one thing now needed to convert these barren lands into good pastures and farm lands". The settlers have converted small areas into reasonable pasture during intervening years. Further research into the requirements of these soils has been carried out by the Cawthron Institute.

RECENT EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON PAKIHI SOILS

THE PURPOSE of this paper is to make some general comments on pakihi soils, to review experimental work on them in the Westport district, and to make some recommendations on development techniques, based on information gained by many workers over a period of some fifty years.