Packet Forwarding Research Articles

Binary Spray and wait routing Protocol with controlled replication for DTN based Multi-Layer UAV Ad-hoc network Assisting VANET

Unmanned Arial Vehicle (UAV) Network is an autonomous wireless communication network, mainly used for natural disaster recovery operations to forward the captured images or video information to the ground vehicle. The UAV network can be applied in various applications essentially, search and rescue operations. This work concentrates on Delay Tolerant Network DTN based Decentralized Multi-layer UAV ad-hoc network assisting VANET for post-disaster scenarios. Because of unbalanced links in highly dynamic UAV networks, packet forwarding is a challenge. This work proposes a Binary Spray and wait routing protocol (BSnW) with controlled replication for DTN based Decentralized Multi-layer UAV networks. The Next Layer UAVs are presented to empower a well-organized Store and carry forward (SCF), in Multi-Layer UAV ad-hoc networks. Next Layer UAVs expands the accessibility of connecting tracks among the all DTN UAVs and the ground vehicle, hence reducing end-to-end delays and growing the packet delivery ratio and drop the packet drop ratio. The proposed BSnW with controlled replication protocol enables a high packet delivery ratio, which enables, and guarantees single-copy data forwarding to evade duplication of every message. Proposed protocol has been experimented using Opportunistic Network Environment (ONE) Simulator. Our simulated experiment show that the proposed protocol outstrips the epidemic routing protocols reported in the literature in terms of the packet delivery ratio, average delay, throughput and the routing overhead.

Adaptive Routing Strategy Based on Improved Double Q-Learning for Satellite Internet of Things

Satellite Internet of Things (S-IoT), which integrates satellite networks with IoT, is a new mobile Internet to provide services for social networks. However, affected by the dynamic changes of topology structure and node status, the efficient and secure forwarding of data packets in S-IoT is challenging. In view of the abovementioned problem, this paper proposes an adaptive routing strategy based on improved double Q-learning for S-IoT. First, the whole S-IoT is regarded as a reinforcement learning environment, and satellite nodes and ground nodes in S-IoT are both regarded as intelligent agents. Each node in the S-IoT maintains two Q tables, which are used for selecting the forwarding node and for evaluating the forwarding value, respectively. In addition, the next hop node of data packets is determined depending on the mixed Q value. Second, in order to optimize the Q value, this paper makes improvements on the mixed Q value, the reward value, and the discount factor, respectively, based on the congestion degree, the hop count, and the node status. Finally, we perform extensive simulations to evaluate the performance of this adaptive routing strategy in terms of delivery rate, average delay, and overhead ratio. Evaluation results demonstrate that the proposed strategy can achieve more efficient and secure routing in the highly dynamic environment compared with the state-of-the-art strategies.

Enhanced Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (EEE-RP) to forward the Data Packets and to improve QoS in Wireless Sensor Networks by Means of Machine Learning Methods

Objectives: To propose an energy-efficient routing protocol for forwarding Data Packets for effective transmission of captured data using Machine Learning Methods in order to enhance WSN service efficiency. Methods: This study proposes a new routing mechanism Enhanced Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (EEE-RP) to extend the network life by reducing end-to-end delays by forwarding data packets to their destinations in the most efficient and optimal way possible using the best path. To forward data packets in a dynamic and noise-free manner, machine learning approaches such as reinforcement learning, random walk data collection, and Markov decision process framework methods are used. Findings: To demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed EEE-RP protocol, the NS2 Version 35 simulator is used. The simulation results are compared to the baseline EH-WSN and ECO-LEACH protocols in terms of data arrival rate, packet drop ratio, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, network traffic, delay and network lifetime to show the superior performance in forwarding the data packets in an efficient manner. Novelty: According to the results of the comprehensive study, EEE-RP performs better at detecting network failures, selecting the most appropriate route to forward data packets, minimizing energy consumption, minimizing delay time, and enhancing the network lifetime. Keywords: Energy Efficient Protocol; Sensor Networks; Machine Learning;Packets; Routing

Zone selection strategy in Geocast routing algorithms in VANET: a review

Vehicle Ad hoc Network (VANET) is emerging as a desirable technology to make a revolution in transportation system. Due to the high and predictable mobility of vehicles, the Geocast routing algorithm is a commonly used method in VANETs. This algorithm selects a zone and employs a controlled flooding technique to forward data packets. In this paper, a comprehensive survey is conducted based on the existing Geocast routing algorithms in VANETs. Based on the zone selection strategy, these algorithms are classified into two main categories: static zone and dynamic zone. In the former, algorithms select a constant zone for packet forwarding, while in the latter, the selected zone can be changed dynamically. The algorithms that belong to each category are explained in detail. Finally, these algorithms are discussed and compared with each other in terms of objective, method, developing characteristics, simulation configuration, forwarding selection strategies, and evaluation metrics.

Explaining safety failures in NetKAT

This work introduces a concept of explanations with respect to the violation of safe behaviours within software defined networks (SDNs) expressible in NetKAT. The latter is a network programming language based on a well-studied mathematical structure, namely, Kleene Algebra with Tests (KAT). Amongst others, the mathematical foundation of NetKAT gave rise to a sound and complete equational theory. In our setting, a safe behaviour is characterised by a NetKAT policy, or program, which does not enable forwarding packets from an ingress i to an undesirable egress e. We show how explanations for safety violations can be derived in an equational fashion, according to a modification of the existing NetKAT axiomatisation. We propose an approach based on the Maude system for actually computing the undesired behaviours witnessing the forwarding of packets from i to e as above. SDN-SafeCheck is a tool based on Maude equational theories satisfying important properties such as Church-Rosser and termination. SDN-SafeCheck automatically identifies all the undesired behaviours leading to e, covering forwarding paths up to a user specified size.

R2T-DSDN: reliable real-time distributed controller-based SDN

Software-defined network (SDN) is an emerging network architecture in which the network control task is separated from packet forwarding. This architecture can be considered as a suitable infrastructure for fifth-generation mobile network (5G) and Internet of things due to its flexibility and dynamism. In real-time networks, time-sensitive packets that miss their deadlines are considered useless or less worthy. As with traditional networks, SDN is expected to support real-time communications and handle a variety of failures (including local controller, switch, and link failures) simultaneously. This study focuses on real-time communication of time-sensitive applications that operate on distributed SDN. We propose an efficient and customized scheduling algorithm to send packets, taking into account some types of fault occurrence, as a part of our proposed solution called R2T-DSDN. Two types of statistical and probabilistic performance models are developed for the determination of the critical and non-critical states of the network. R2T-DSDN allocates priority and adaptive budget to each scheduling scheme in both modes and delivers packets according to their relative deadlines. In the proposed architecture, a leader controller distributes network traffic dynamically across local controllers. The architecture is finally evaluated by the Mininet tool in terms of real-time characteristics and other quality criteria to test how robust it is in case of failures. The emulation results show that for different types of failures, the average deadline hit ratio is 97.9%, which is quite acceptable for multimedia and firm or soft real-time applications in the network.

A Secure Trust-aware Cross-layer Routing Protocol for Vehicular Ad hoc Networks

VANETs currently represent one of the most prominent solutions that aim to reduce the number of road accident victims and congestion problems while improving the quality of driving. VANETs form a very dynamic open network in which vehicles exchange information and warnings about road situations and other traffic information through several routing protocols, without any intermediate control. However, the absence of a central control makes such a network vulnerable to several types of attack, not only from the outside but also, and mostly, from the interior. This makes their detection by classical security techniques more difficult and requires the development of new techniques to control the information circulating in the network. In this context, a proposed routing protocol called TDMA-aware Routing Protocol for Multi hop communication in Vehicular networks, is vulnerable to security threats, such as Black Hole and Gray Hole attacks, as well as MAC attacks such as Denial of Service (DoS), which lead to a considerable deterioration in the network’s performance in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delays, channel access rate, etc. To mitigate the effect of those attacks, we propose a trust-based model in which each node will establish a trust relationship with its neighbors based on their behaviors during the channel access and packet forwarding process. The simulation results show a significant decrease in the effect of attacks on the performance of the TRPM protocol.

A Novel Approach for QoS Enhancement with Revision Scheme Using SeDSR Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is an emerging technology that pays more attention to the monitoring and acquiring of data in a deployed environment. Sensor networks often perform end to end transmission, so strong requirements should be defined to avoid data loss. The strong requirements may be precisely defined in terms of Quality of Service (QoS). The data transmission resumed, and the routing mechanism performed a vital role to forward the packets. The route path cache requires a crucial responsibility for on-demand routing standards that enhance the Quality of Service. The path identification stage is employed in the on-demand routing standard. The path identification scheme defines the path cache policies that are employed to move packet forwarding in an efficient manner. Therefore, the intention is to design a fresh scheme for path cache revisions. In a traditional scheme, nodes are little aware of path faults and they are engaged in the routing by revising their routing table. While SeDSR, based on the scattered cache substitution scheme, the source node relays the path fault data of the size of 50 bytes to all their adjacencies. Therefore, all the adjacency substitutes the stale path in their cache. The designed scheme enhances the performance employing diverse QoS metrics such as Packet loss, energy utilization, packet delivery and End to End delay.

Algorithmic TCAM on FPGA with data collision approach

<span>Content addressable memory (CAM) and ternary content addressable memory (TCAM) are specialized high-speed memories for data searching. CAM and TCAM have many applications in network routing, packet forwarding and Internet data centers. These types of memories have drawbacks on power dissipation and area. As field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is recently being used for network acceleration applications, the demand to integrate TCAM and CAM on FPGA is increasing. Because most FPGAs do not support native TCAM and CAM hardware, methods of implementing algorithmic TCAM using FPGA resources have been proposed through recent years. Algorithmic TCAM on FPGA have the advantages of FPGAs low power consumption and high intergration scalability. This paper proposes a scaleable algorithmic TCAM design on FPGA. The design uses memory blocks to negate power dissipation issue and data collision to save area. The paper also presents a design of a 256 x 104-bit algorithmic TCAM on Intel FPGA Cyclone V, evaluates the performance and application ability of the design on large scale and in future developments.</span>

Generation and collection of data for normal and conflicting flows in software defined network flow table

<a name="_Hlk31039004"></a><span lang="EN-US">In terms of network simplification and regulation, Software Defined Networking (SDN) is a new form of infrastructure that offers greater adaptability and flexibility. SDN, however, is an invention that is logically centralized. </span><span>In addition, the optimization of the control plane and data plane in SDN has become an area deserving of more attention. The flow in OpenFlow has been one of the essential parameters in the SDN standards, in which every individual flow includes packet matching fields, flow priority, separate counters, instructions for packet forwarding, flow timeouts and a cookie. This research work is conducted in order to produce and collect flows from the OpenFlow switch in two scenarios; in normal flows and when conflict policy rules are enforced in the network. In this article, the throughput is required to review and evaluate the conflict impact on two protocols as a performance metric; the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) that flows via a forwarded plane. During the simulation of the SDN OpenFlow network, the metrics are tested using MININET. The results demonstrate that the existence of SDN conflict rules allows TCP and UDP to have a significant average change in bandwidth that eventually affects the network and operations performance.</span>

Integrated Context-Based Mitigation Framework for Enforcing Security against Rendezvous Point Attack in MANETs

Reliable communication in ad hoc networks necessitates mobile nodes to synchronize among themselves for cooperation. The cooperation in ad hoc networks is enforced through the implementation of encryption algorithms and intrusion detection systems. Most of the intrusion detection and encryption algorithms are not effective enough to address the extent to which a participative mobile node may trust other interacting mobile nodes for data forwarding. The existing mitigation frameworks consider packet forwarding capability as the single parameter for calculating trust values which cannot be appropriate for computing the accurate trust factor as reliable nodes are highly impacted by data rate, throughput, delay and energy consumption. An Integrated Context-based Mitigation Framework (ICMF) is proposed for facilitating effective mitigation of rendezvous point misbehavior and for enhancing the performance of the network. This proposed ICMF framework facilitates rendezvous point misbehavior detection by determining Grey theory Inspired Discriminating Factor (GTIDF) that is contextually derived from multiple factors including data rate, throughput, delay and energy consumptions using the benefits of the Grey theory. From the simulation results of the proposed ICMF framework, improved root node attackers survivability rate and root node attackers categorization rate are inferred when compared to the benchmarked baseline mitigation frameworks.

An Effective Traffic Management System Using Connected Dominating Set Forwarding (CDSF) Framework for Reducing Traffic Congestion in High Density VANETs

In recent times, congestion in traffic is bit cost effective and several traffic management methods are utilized to balance the traffic as per the capacity of roads. However, many methods fails in pre-analyzing the network events to regulate the traffic flow. Also, the dynamic movement of vehicles fails in adapting the vehicle units to follow the changing topology. Hence, it is necessary for packet forwarding between source and destination nodes in a precise manner, where the packet loss and communication overhead should be in control. In this paper, we utilize the concept of Connected Dominating Set (CDS) approach in traffic management for reducing the flow of traffic streaming in main routes. The CDS approach dynamically adapts itself with the changing topology and acts as a virtual backbone to reduce traffic overhead. It restricts the increased flow of vehicles to the dominators, since traffic congestion in such areas increases. The CDS forwarding (CDSF) finds the dominating or high congestion routes and diverts the traffic to other areas based on the level of traffic in sub-routes. The CDSF method works on an assumption that edges on road segments has multiple vehicles, where it increases the network efficiency. However, we make careful consideration of choosing the other road segments to traverse the required packets from source to destination with reduced packet loss. The construction of a virtual backbone network with series of neighboring backbone nodes traverses efficiently the packets. Further, choosing vehicles with low velocity improves the probability of connectivity in a specific area and increases the network throughput. This improves the re-routing flexibility and makes the packets to reach the destination without traffic congestion in VANETs. The CDSF method and control strategies are tested in NS2 and SUMO simulator under different traffic conditions. The results of simulation show that CDSF traffic management system reduces significantly the traffic congestion and overall traffic cost that includes CDF, average latency, average end-to-end delay, Hop count, packet error rate, percentage delivery ratio, data delivery rate, throughput. The result shows that the proposed method 0.345 times improved packet delivery ratio, 0.35 times improved throughput and 0.7 times reduced delay than the existing methods. Further, the CDSF method controls the traffic density by reducing the maximum queue length and traffic controlling time.

Event Driven Duty Cycling with Reinforcement Learning and Monte Carlo Technique for Wireless Network

Reducing transmission delay and maximizing the network lifetime are important issues for wireless sensor networks (WSN). The existing approaches commonly let the nodes periodically sleep to minimize energy consumption, which adversely increases packet forwarding latency. In this study, a novel scheme is proposed, which effectively determines the duty cycle of the nodes and packet forwarding path according to the network condition by employing the event-based mechanism and reinforcement learning technique. This allows low-latency energy-efficient scheduling and reduces the transmission collision between the nodes on the path. The Monte Carlo evaluation method is also adopted to minimize the overhead of the computation of each node in making the decision. Computer simulation reveals that the proposed scheme significantly improves end-to-end latency, waiting time, packet delivery ratio, and energy efficiency compared to the existing schemes including S-MAC and event-driven adaptive duty cycling scheme.

A comparative study on geographic‐based routing algorithms for flying ad‐hoc networks

SummaryThe advancement of the technology and broad availability of low‐cost devices (e.g., networking technology, micro‐embedded computers, and sensors, etc.) have opened new ways for the expansion of flying ad‐hoc networks (FANETs). The unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have the potential to change their trajectory freely in the case of FANETs. This freedom demands efficient routing to make the network connection smooth. However, designing routing protocols for FANETs is a crucial task for highly dynamic nodes like UAVs. The position‐based routing demonstrated high efficiency and resilience to handle the high mobility of UAV nodes in FANETs as compared to topology‐based routing protocols. Geographic routing protocols utilize the coordinates of the node to greedily proceed toward the destination. This article presents an extensive review of position‐based or geographic routing protocols in FANETs. Previous survey papers have performed a comparative analysis of all the protocols on different network conditions, assumptions, tools, and settings, therefore their performance is not comparable. The novelty of this survey is that this article performs the comparative analysis of various geographic routing protocols by evaluating all the geographic routing protocols over a common network scenario with a varying number of nodes. The starting phase of this article covers the basic outline of FANETs. Thereafter, an absolute study of the geographic based routing protocol has been presented by distinguishing the routing protocols on the basis of path and packet forwarding strategy. This article further emphasizes on the strength, weaknesses, quality of service (QoS), and comparative analysis of the various characteristics of the geographic routing protocols. Finally, a performance comparison summary of all the analyzed routing protocols for FANETs has been presented. The open research issues have been discussed at the end of this article.

Isolation Forest-Based Mechanism to Defend against Interest Flooding Attacks in Named Data Networking

Interest flooding attacks (IFAs) are widely regarded as being among the most harmful security risks in named data networking (NDN). Through an IFA, the attacker injects numerous Interest packets into a network to drain network resources such as bandwidth, caching capacity, and computational capacity, which can seriously affect the normal data content requests of legitimate consumers and degrade the network quality of service (QoS). To design a high-efficiency IFA mitigation scheme, it is critical to detect attacks accurately and rapidly. Therefore, there is high interest in developing an optimized attack detection scheme. In this study, the concept of an isolation forest (iForest) is introduced to develop an IFA detection mechanism in which the iForest construction process isolates abnormal and legitimate prefixes. This approach enables malicious prefixes to be identified among abnormal prefixes to mitigate IFAs by restricting the forwarding of malicious Interest packets. The results of extensive simulations show that the proposed iForest-based IFA detection mechanism (IFDM) outperforms other related schemes in terms of attack detection accuracy and speed and thus can offer effective support for preserving NDN QoS.

WITHDRAWN: Detection and elimination of black hole attacks in mobile ad hoc networks

Abstract Wireless Ad Hoc Network is a dynamically organized network on emergency situations, in which a group of wireless devices send data among themselves without requiring any base stations for forwarding data. Multi hop communication in MANET is achieved by the cooperation of nodes in forwarding data packets. This feature of MANET is largely exploited to launch a security attack called black hole attack. In this attack, the attacker sends a false route reply to the source node claiming the shortest path to reach the destination and attracts the data traffic towards it and drops all data packets without forwarding it to the destination. A light weight solution called SEC-DSR is proposed to defend the network from black hole attack and enables communication among nodes even in the presence of attackers. In this scheme, by analyzing only the control packets used for routing in the network, the compromised nodes launching the attack are identified. From the collective judgment by the participating nodes in the routing path, a secure route free of black hole nodes is selected for communication by the host. Simulation results validate and ensure the effectiveness of the proposed solution in the presence of black hole nodes. Also the proposed work achieves better throughput and better end-to-end delay in the presence of attack.

Intelligent Content-Centric Networking Routing Strategy: A Bacterial Quorum Inspired Pattern

In recent years, the Content-Centric Networking (CCN) has attracted much attention from the global Internet experts, especially it has demonstrated the outstanding effect on the application in the field of Internet of Things (IoT). At present, the routing technique of ICN is subjected to the dynamic change of network environment with the development of mobile Internet. Therefore, this paper proposes an Intelligent CCN routing strategy based on Bacterial Quorum pattern (ICBQ). The ICBQ tries to simulate the behaviors of bacteria, including quorum sensing and adaptive chemotaxis. Meanwhile, the quorum sensing can obtain the parameter information on bandwidth, delay and error rate to facilitate the subsequent forwarding of packets; The adaptive chemotaxis can select the optimal interface to forward the packets through the information measurement. The simulation is driven based on the real Netflix dataset over the GTS network topology, and the experimental results show that the proposed ICBQ has better performance in terms of routing success rate, routing delay and load balance.

CLUSTER BASED ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN WSN SENSOR

Over the past few years we can observe the WSNs or Wireless Sensor Network applications in various fields increasing immensely. The energy efficiency, network lifetime and clustering process prime goal is the working network's optimization is the focus of many of the routing algorithm. Keeping in mind the network homogeneity, for network performance reinforcement we suggest instead of single path to use multiple paths. For WSNs, Reinforcement Intelligence Routing Protocol (RIRP)[1]. In the multihop wireless sensor networks an efficient and effective method for security improvements local monitoring has worked well [2]. But taking in consideration the power consumption in the current practice of local monitoring is costly. For ensuring long-lived operations in the sensor network reinforcement intelligent routing protocol is critical [3]. For ensuring both the aspects improvement in security and long-lived operations, the development of mechanism that is effective and incorporated with the Reinforcement protocol is an open problem. With the help of local monitoring to solve this issue, section of the traffic going in and out of its neighbors is supervised by each node to keep a check on any suspicious behavior like unlikely long delays in packet forwarding [4]. To integrate the existing reinforcement protocol of the network and without any niggardly in the consumption of energy in the local monitoring with the help of a protocol [5]. In comparison to other protocols in this protocol the region of instability starts later. At a constant rate the nodes of the RIRP or Reinforcement Intelligent Routing Protocol dies. Few problems such as cluster head selection process, network lifetime and network stability are evaluated and worked in the technique proposed here [6]. To reduce the overload consumption as much as possible the nodes switches in between the active and sleep mode.

LWTSM-IoT: Light Weight Trust Sensing Mechanism for Internet of Things

In Internet of Things (IoT), secure communication is a prime concern since the open internet source and vast heterogeneity offers several challenges to the network. To achieve an enhanced security, an effective trust evaluation model is required through which the abnormal nodes can be detected and isolated. Towards this objective we have proposed a Light Weight Trust Sensing (LWTS) mechanism for IoT routing. Several factors like Packet Forwarding Factor, Packet Consistency Factor and Packet Repetition Factor are employed to analyze the behaviour of IoT nodes. Along with these factors, the proposed model also checks for energy efficiency to achieve an improved network lifetime. Trust Calculation process is accomplished in two phases; they are direct and indirect fashion. Finally based on obtained total trust, each neighbour node are categorized as No Trust, Average Trust, Fair Trust and Good Trust and the node with good trust is selected as next-hop forwarding node. For the proposed approach extensive simulations are carried out and the performance is measured through Packet Delivery Ratio, Malicious Detection Rate and Average Energy Consumption. The obtained results prove the effectiveness when compared to existing approaches.

A trust‐based mechanism in multipath routing using Biogeography‐Shun Optimization

SummaryIn mobile ad hoc network, a group of mobile nodes interconnect with each other in an ad hoc manner without any centralized administration. Various applications are based on integrating mobile ad hoc network and cloud computing to enhance the processing and storing of mobile nodes. Cloud service providers provide mobile ad hoc network users access to applications and other mobile ad hoc network users. Implementing security mechanism for ad hoc routing can be a daunting task owing it its unique network traits. Blackhole attack found in the mobile ad hoc network takes place when malicious nodes attract data packets using a fresh destination route and drop the packets. In this work, a trust‐based routing that has a probability of a new packet forwarding is proposed to mitigate blackhole attacks. The ad hoc on‐demand multipath distance vector routing protocol is used in this work, which is based on the trust model that measures the trust of nodes and composes a decision, respectively. A novel optimization technique that has its basis in the Biogeography‐Shun Optimization algorithm is suggested for enhancing the multipath routing. Simulations demonstrate that the proposed method attains better performance by enhancing lifetime of network and packet delivery ratio and reducing end‐to‐end delay.