Packet Boundaries Research Articles

Microstructural changes in cast martensitic steel after creep at 620°C

Microstructural changes in the cast steel GX12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 (Fe–0.11 C–0.31 Si–0.89 Mn–9.57 Cr–0.66 Ni–1.01 Mo–1.00 W–0.21 V–0.06 Nb–0.05 Cu–0.05 N in wt %) have been investigated after tests for long-term strength at a temperature of 620°C in the range of stresses of 120–160 MPa. Upon short-term creep (up to 5000 h), the tempered troostite structure and distribution of particles of proeutectoid constituents change insignificantly, except for the precipitation of particles of the Laves phase ∼100 nm in size along boundaries of laths, blocks, packets, and initial austenite grains. Upon long-term creep (to 10000 h), the tempered troostite partially transforms into the subgrain structure, which is accompanied by a decrease in the dislocation density from 6.4 × 1014 to 3.1 × 1013 m–2 and connected with growth of sizes of M23C6 carbides of 105–150 nm and particles of the Laves phase to 380 nm, due to the dissolution of these particles located along path boundaries. Upon long-term creep, the average size of V(C,N) particles increases from 45 to 64 nm (while Nb(C,N) particles increase from 48 to 87 nm), and the Nb content in V-enriched carbonitrides and the V content in Nb-enriched M(C,N) particles substantially decrease. No formation of the Z phase has been revealed. The combination of M(C,N) nanoparticles with the presence of W in the solid solution has been found to be responsible for the enhanced high-temperature strength of the steel.

SEM Study of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Chromium Martensitic Steel after LCF

Crack propagation after low-cycle fatigue (LCF) deformation has been studied in the chromium martensitic structural steel. Although the study of a fundamental mechanism of fatigue crack growth has received much attention over the last decade, it still remains a sufficiently complex problem and needs full understanding. Moreover, the recent studies show that the cracks propagate discontinuously even on the millisecond timescale, and their growth rate significantly depends on a microstructure of the material. In the present work the boundaries of the former austenitic grains were revealed on the polished surfaces of the thermally treated samples, which subsequently were undergone low-cycle fatigue tests. The experimental studies show that fatigue macrocracks mainly grow along the boundaries of the former austenitic grains, and changetheir propagation direction when crossing the grain boundary, however, remain within 45 ̊ interval with regard the cycling axis. In particular cases, when the boundaries of a martensite packets and those of the former austenite grains lay along the length of a packet, the macrocrack is better formed and with regular borders. After a macrocrack reaches a definite length ~30-50μ, a microcrack is nucleated ahead of the macrocrack tip, and is oriented along the substructure element of the steel. Further deformation tests provide an increase in the length of the main crack via aggregation of microcracks initiated ahead of it during the LCF. In the cases when the macrocrack is deviated, slip bands are formed in martensitic structures along the boundaries of martensite packets (laths). A correlation is revealed between the microcrack components and the substructure elements of the steel as well. The same results were obtained by fractography of the tested and fractured samples. However, in the latter case correlation was established between the cleavage facets and the dimensions of packets.

Three-dimensional observations of morphology of low-angle boundaries in ultra-low carbon lath martensite.

The lath martensite structure contains hierarchical substructures, such as blocks, packets and prior austenite grains. Generally, high-angle grain boundaries in the lath martensite structure, i.e. block boundaries, are correlated to mechanical properties. On the other hand, low-angle grain boundaries play an important role in morphological development. However, it is difficult to understand their nature because of the difficulty associated with the characterization of the complex morphologies by two-dimensional techniques. This study aims to identify the morphologies of low-angle boundaries in ultra-low carbon lath martensite. A serial-sectioning method and electron backscatter diffraction analysis are utilized to reconstruct three-dimensional objects and analyse their grain boundaries. A packet comprizes two low-angle grain boundaries - sub-block and fine packet boundaries. Sub-blocks exhibit porous morphology, with two large sub-blocks predominantly occupying a block. Several fine packets with different habit planes from the surrounding regions are observed. Fine packets are present in blocks, which frequently share a close-packed direction with the neighbouring fine packets. In addition, fine packets are in contact with the sub-block boundaries.

High-Temperature Tempered Martensite Embrittlement in Quenched-and-Tempered Offshore Steels

Embrittlement induced by high-temperature tempering was investigated in two quenched-and-tempered offshore steels. Electron backscattering diffraction and analysis of Kernel average misorientation were applied to study the coalescence of martensite; transmission Kikuchi diffraction coupled with compositional mapping was used to characterize the martensite/austenite (M/A) phases. It is suggested that the formation of lenticular martensite along prior austenite grain boundaries or packet boundaries primarily explains the embrittlement in conventional S690Q steel, which has a higher carbon content. This embrittlement can be cured by additional heat treatment to decompose martensite into ferrite and cementite. In a newly designed NiCu steel with reduced carbon content, new lath martensite formed along interlath or inter-block boundaries of prior martensite. This microstructure is less detrimental to the impact toughness of the steel.

Effects of Hydrogen on Tensile Properties at Slow Strain Rate of Ultra High-Strength TRIP-aided Bainitic Ferrite Steels

Abstract To clarify the effects of hydrogen on the deformation properties of TBF steel at low strain rate, the tensile properties of hydrogen-charged TBF steel were investigated by using slow strain rate technique (SSRT). Total elongation of TBF steel decreased due to the hydrogen absorption. The hydrogen absorption changed fracture surfaces of TBF steel from dimple fracture to quasi cleavage fracture. In addition, hydrogen-assisted cracks perpendicular to the tensile direction were observed at the prior austenitic grain, the packet and the bainitic ferrite lath boundaries although voids occurred at the lath boundary in non-hydrogen-charged TBF steel. In the case of the hydrogen-assisted cracks in hydrogen-charged TBF steel, transformed martensite is located near cracks. Transformation of retained austenite to martensite in the TBF steel was slightly accelerated during tensile deformation when the TBF steel was charged with hydrogen. When tensile strain was applied to the hydrogen-charged TBF steel, hydrogen was evolved at the high temperature region of peak corresponding to vacancy clusters generated by the intersection of dislocation in the hydrogen evolution curve. Thus, deterioration of ductility of hydrogen-charged TBF steel was caused by the acceleration of transformation of retained austenite because of the hydrogen absorption and the promotion of crack initiation at the prior austenitic grain, packet and lath boundaries due to the hydrogen diffusion from transformed martensite.

AFM Study of Microstructure Role in the Cyclic Plasticity of Martensitic Steel

The paper presents the description of FSMs (fatigue slip markings) and the evaluation of cyclic plasticity markings of a 12%Cr martensitic steel by AFM surface analyses. The microstructure of a 12%Cr martensitic steel, quenched and tempered in air, consists of prior austenite grains, packets, blocks, and laths. The low cycle fatigue (LCF) test at a total strain range Δεt=1.2% was interrupted at different life fractions for the surface relief investigation by AFM. The localization of FSMs relatively to the different microstructural interfaces of the studied steel was proposed. The principal FSMs, appeared in the first fatigue cycle, are likely to be localized at the packet and block boundaries, while the secondary one (appeared later at 44% of lifetime) are at the lath boundaries or in the laths. The height of principal and secondary FSMs increases constantly during LCF cycling.

Development of high strength ultra-heavy plate processed with gradient temperature rolling, intercritical quenching and tempering

To develop ultra-heavy high strength plate with outstanding strength homogeneity in thickness direction, a novel method called gradient temperature rolling (GTR) process followed by intercritical quenching and tempering was employed in this paper, and the mechanism for GTR process on the microstructure, mechanical property and fracture mechanism were investigated. The results showed that, GTR process could effectively refine prior austenite grain size in half and quarter thickness of as-rolled plate, and increase the fraction of intercritical ferrite and high angle boundaries in as-quenched specimens. The ultra-heavy plate with yield strength of 690MPa was developed by GTR and represented excellent mechanical property, such as the elongation and −40°C impact energy are more than 16% and 60J, respectively, and the maximum difference of yield strength was less than 10MPa in full thickness indicating that an outstanding strength homogeneity was achieved. By further analysis of macroscopic and microscopic impact fracture, the cracks in plate produced via conventional uniform temperature rolling process are mainly orginated from large, sharp-cornered M/A islands. However, the cracks of plate produced by GTR process are primarily initiated around precipitates, packet boundaries and ferrite-tempered martensite interface, and propagate by microvoid growth, coalescence and microvoid linkage, which leads to the excellent low temperature toughness.

The Role of the Bainitic Packet in Control of Impact Toughness in a Simulated CGHAZ of X90 Pipeline Steel

X90 pipeline steel was processed with the simulated coarse grain heat affect zone (CGHAZ) thermal cycle with heat input varying from 30 kJ/cm to 60 kJ/cm, the microstructures were investigated by means of optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscope (TEM), and the impact properties were evaluated from the welding thermal cycle treated samples. The results indicate that the microstructure is primarily composed of lath bainite. When decreasing the heat input, both bainite packet and block are significantly refined, and the toughness has an increased tendency due to the grain refinement. The fracture surfaces all present cleavage fracture for the samples with different heat inputs. Moreover, the average cleavage facet size for the CGHAZ is nearly equal to the average bainite packet size, and the bainitic packet boundary can strongly impede the crack propagation, indicating that the bainitic packet is the most effective unit in control of impact toughness in the simulated CGHAZ of X90 pipeline steel.

Multiple mechanisms of lath martensite plasticity

The multi-scale complexity of lath martensitic microstructures requires scale-bridging analyses to better understand the deformation mechanisms activated therein. In this study, plasticity in lath martensite is investigated by multi-field mapping of deformation-induced microstructure, topography, and strain evolution at different spatial resolution vs. field-of-view combinations. These investigations reveal site-specific initiation of dislocation activity within laths, as well as significant plastic accommodation in the vicinity of high angle block and packet boundaries. The observation of interface plasticity raises several questions regarding the role of thin inter-lath austenite films. Thus, accompanying transmission electron microscopy and synchrotron x-ray diffraction experiments are carried out to investigate the stability of these films to mechanical loading, and to discuss alternative boundary sliding mechanisms to explain the observed interface strain localization.

Effects of tantalum content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of low-carbon RAFM steel

In order to explore the influence of tantalum content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of low carbon RAFM (reduced activation ferritic/martensitic) steels, three low carbon RAFM steels with different tantalum contents (0%, 0.027%, 0.073%) were designed. The precipitation behavior and effect of precipitates on the mechanical properties of the Low-C RAFM steel were investigated. The results indicate that increase of tantalum content causes decrease of the prior austenite grain size and the amount of M23C6 carbides precipitated along prior austenite grain boundaries and packet boundaries as well as increase of the amount of MX nano-sized particles within intragranular regions. The impact properties of low carbon RAFM steels are excellent regardless of the tantalum content. The impact properties and hardness are obviously improved by increasing tantalum content, which may be related to increase of the number of MX and decrease of M23C6. Furthermore, the tensile properties at elevated temperature below 600 °C are hardly changed with increase of tantalum content, yet those at 800 °C are improved with increasing tantalum content. This implies that MX carbides would be more important for tensile properties at higher temperature.

Evolution of the substructure of a novel 12% Cr steel under creep conditions

In this work we study the microstruture evolution of a newly developed 12% Cr martensitic/ferritic steel in as-received condition and after creep at 650°C under 130MPa and 80MPa. The microstructure is described as consisting of mobile dislocations, dipole dislocations, boundary dislocations, precipitates, lath boundaries, block boundaries, packet boundaries and prior austenitic grain boundaries. The material is characterized employing light optical microscopy (LOM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). TEM is used to characterize the dislocations (mobile+dipole) inside the subgrains and XRD measurements are used to the characterize mobile dislocations. Based on the subgrain boundary misorientations obtained from EBSD measurements, the boundary dislocation density is estimated. The total dislocation density is estimated for the as-received and crept conditions adding the mobile, boundary and dipole dislocation densities. Additionally, the subgrain size is estimated from the EBSD measurements. In this publication we propose the use of three characterization techniques TEM, XRD and EBSD as necessary to characterize all type of dislocations and quantify the total dislocation densty in martensitic/ferritic steels.

Effect of substructure on mechanical properties and fracture behavior of lath martensite in 0.1C–1.1Si–1.7Mn steel

The purpose of this study was to analyze the microstructure of lath martensite in 0.1C–1.1Si–1.7Mn (wt.%) steel and its effect on mechanical properties and fracture behavior. The microstructure was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD). Charpy V-notch impact samples and compact tension (CT) samples were used to investigate the Charpy impact properties and fatigue crack growth behavior of the steel, respectively. The propagation of cleavage crack and fatigue crack were analyzed to figure out the effective grain size. The results showed that the typical hierarchical lath martensite structure contained prior austenite grains, packets, blocks and laths; packet size and block width were positively correlated to prior austenite grain size, while lath width was maintained at about 0.29 μm. Yield strength was related to prior austenite grain size, packet size and block width, and obeyed Hall–Petch relationship. Grain refinement was effective in improving the resistance to cleavage fracture by introducing barriers to crack propagation; packet boundaries and block boundaries hold similar ability to impede the propagation of crack. Paris model can well describe the FCG behavior of the investigated steel. Block width governs the effective grain size for strength, toughness and fatigue crack propagation.

Effect of microstructural types on toughness and microstructural optimization of ultra-heavy steel plate: EBSD analysis and microscopic fracture mechanism

The uniformity of toughness along thickness direction has long been the critical problem for producing ultra-heavy steel plate. To clarify the rule and mechanism of the influence of microstructures on toughness, different microstructures and their mixtures have been obtained through various heat treatment processes. The microstructures and substructures were characterized by means of optical microscope and transmission electron microscope. Furthermore, the correlations between misorientation, grain size, microscopic fracture propagation and toughness have been studied in detail using electron backscatter diffraction. Results suggest that after tempering, lath bainite can achieve better toughness property than martensite, whereas granular bainite is detrimental for toughness. Note that firstly generated lath bainite can effectively refine subsequent martensitic packets and blocks, and increase barriers for fracture propagation. Compared with single-phase martensite microstructure, the mixture of martensite+bainite obtains finer substructure and more percentage of large misorientation, which are favorable for hindering the propagation of microcrack, meanwhile it is an ideal microstructural type to achieve the optimal combination of toughness and strength. Besides, functional mechanism of packet boundaries and block boundaries for hindering crack propagation is different, as it is more difficult for crack propagation to bridge between different lattice planes than between different crystallographic orientations.

Fatigue Crack Initiation of F82H Reduced Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steel

To improve the fatigue life assessment of the relatively thin wall structure of the fusion reactor blanket, the fatigue micro-crack initiation behavior of the F82H steel at room temperature was investigated. The micro-crack initiation life was approximately 20–30 % of the fatigue life. The crack initiation was observed at the prior austenitic grain boundary, the packet boundary, the block boundary, and the inside of the block structure. The majority was the transgranular crack initiation, which exceeded 90 % of the all. The effect of the irradiation damage (irradiation hardening) was only a shortening of the micro-crack initiation life. No change of the micro-crack initiation sites and their ratio were observed.

Laves Phase Formation and Its Effect on Mechanical Properties in P91 Steel

Effect of Laves phase formation on mechanical properties in a pressurized T-junction of P91 steel pipe at 849 K for 58,000 h with 25.65 MPa vapor pressure was studied. Thermodynamic calculations had been performed by using the software Thermo-Calc to study the phase at equilibrium state. Counter plot of von Mises stress in the pipe during service life was calculated by finite element analysis to study the effect of the operated stress distribution on the evolution of Laves phase. The change in the microstructure and mechanical properties in the sites with different stress was also studied. The results indicated that the formation of Laves phase in P91 steel was a thermodynamically possible process due to enrichment of Mo and depletion of C adjacent to M 23C6 particles or along martensite lath and packet boundaries. The formation of Laves phase had a detrimental influence on the mechanical properties in P91 steel. The mean size of Laves phase would be significantly increased with increasing operated stress, leading to a reduction in tensile properties and impact energy. In particular, crack initiation energy and crack growth energy during impact test rapidly decreased with increasing the mean size and volume fraction of Laves phase.

Prediction of diffusion assisted hydrogen embrittlement failure in high strength martensitic steels

A stress assisted hydrogen diffusion transport model, a dislocation-density-based multiple-slip crystalline plasticity formulation, and an overlapping fracture method were used to investigate hydrogen diffusion and embrittlement in lath martensitic steels with distributions of M23C6 carbide precipitates. The formulation accounts for variant morphologies based on orientation relationships (ORs) that are uniquely inherent to lath martensitic microstructures. The interrelated effects of martensitic block and packet boundaries and carbide precipitates on hydrogen diffusion, hydrogen assisted crack nucleation and growth, are analyzed to characterize the competition between cleavage fracture and hydrogen diffusion assisted fracture along preferential microstructural fracture planes. Stresses along the three cleavage planes and the six hydrogen embrittlement fracture planes are monitored, such that crack nucleation and growth can nucleate along energetically favorable planes. High pressure gradients result in the accumulation of hydrogen, which embrittles martensite, and results in crack nucleation and growth along {110} planes. Cleavage fracture occurs along {100} planes when there is no significant hydrogen diffusion. The predictions indicate that hydrogen diffusion can suppress the emission and accumulation of dislocation density, and lead to fracture with low plastic strains.

γ Grain Memory in X12CrMoWVNbN10‐1‐1 Steel

γ grain memory of X12CrMoWVNbN10‐1‐1 steel is investigated in order to clarify its mechanism from the viewpoint of the roles of retained γ. “isothermal transformation” is proposed to suppress the γ grain memory. The microstructure characterization during the isothermal transformation is carried out. By in situ optical microscopy observation, the acicular γ grains and globular γ grains nucleated in the interior of prior γ grains and along the prior γ grain boundaries or packet boundaries, respectively, when the sample with martensite matrix is reheated. The coarse γ grains are formed by the growth, impingement and coalescence of acicular γ grains with retained γ between martensite lath. The mechanism of suppressing γ grain memory by isothermal transformation is also discussed. It is demonstrated that the γ grain memory could be suppressed by decreasing the volume fraction (fγ) of retained γ before reheating. The critical upper limit fγ to suppress γ grain memory effectively is approximately 3.2%.

English

The effect of holding temperature to variant selection mechanism during bainite transformation was investigated in 2Cr-1Mo steel. The behavior of transformation has been studied by using high temperature laser scanning confocal microscopy, LSCM via in situ observation. The specimen was heat treated to 1350℃ and hold for 60s before being cooled to 560℃and 580℃. At both conditions, each specimen was isothermally transformed for 1 hour and cooled to room temperature. The heat treated specimen was then analyzed by using electron backscattered diffraction, EBSD method. As a result, variant preferential selection is more prominent in higher holding temperature which coarsened the block and packet boundary is connected with low misorientation angle variant. Keyword : Variant analysis, Bainite, Phase transformation, Heat affected zone (HAZ), Cr-Mo steel

Carbide size refinement by controlling the heating rate during induction tempering in a low alloy steel

The application of high heating rates in tempering treatments can provide a valuable tool for refining carbide sizes, mainly those located at high angle grain boundaries. This work analyses the influence of heating rates ranging from 1 to 300°C/s during the tempering treatment of a 0.42%C low alloy steel. The results indicate that when high heating rates are combined with short holding times, predicting hardness will require the inclusion of the heating up and cooling down cycles in addition to the holding time and temperature used in the definition of the conventional Hollomon–Jaffe tempering parameter (TP). The effect of heating rate on carbide size distribution has been quantified, distinguishing between particles located at high (HAB) and low (LAB) misorientation angle boundaries. The former correspond to those carbides nucleated at prior γ grain, martensite block or packet boundaries whereas the latter refer to those nucleated within martensite laths and at lath boundaries. The refinement obtained has been evaluated from the point of view of hardness behaviour.

Investigation of Microstructural Features Determining the Toughness of 980 MPa Bainitic Weld Metal

The microstructural features that control the impact toughness of weld metals of a 980 MPa 8 pct Ni high-strength steel are investigated using instrumented Charpy V tester, optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD), and finite-element method (FEM) calculation. The results show that the critical event for cleavage fracture in this high-strength steel and weld metals is the propagation of a bainite packet-sized crack across the packet boundary into contiguous packets, and the bainitic packet sizes control the impact toughness. The high-angle misorientation boundaries detected in a bainite packet by EBSD form fine tear ridges on fracture surfaces. However, they are not the decisive factors controlling the cleavage fracture. The effects of Ni content are essential factors for improving the toughness. The extra large cleavage facets seriously deteriorate the toughness, which are formed on the interfaces of large columnar crystals growing in welding pools with high heat input.