Pacing Behavior Research Articles

Interaction of exercise bioenergetics with pacing behavior predicts track distance running performance.

The best possible finishing time for a runner competing in distance track events can be estimated from their critical speed (CS) and the finite amount of energy that can be expended above CS (D´). During tactical races with variable pacing, the runner with the "best" combination of CS and D´ and, therefore, the fastest estimated finishing time prior to the race, does not always win. We hypothesized that final race finishing positions depend on the relationships between the pacing strategies used, the athletes' initial CS, and their instantaneous D´ (i.e., D´ balance) as the race unfolds. Using publicly available data from the 2017 International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championships men's 5,000-m and 10,000-m races, race speed, CS, and D´ balance were calculated. The correlation between D´ balance and actual finishing positions was nonsignificant using start-line values but improved to R2 > 0.90 as both races progressed. The D´ balance with 400 m remaining was strongly associated with both final 400-m split time and proximity to the winner. Athletes who exhausted their D´ were unable to hold pace with the leaders, whereas a high D´ remaining enabled a fast final 400 m and a high finishing position. The D´ balance model was able to accurately predict finishing positions in both a "slow" 5,000-m and a "fast" 10,000-m race. These results indicate that although CS and D´ can characterize an athlete's performance capabilities prior to the start, the pacing strategy that optimizes D´ utilization significantly impacts the final race outcome.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that the interaction between exercise bioenergetics and real-time pacing strategy predicts track distance running performance. Critical speed (CS) and the finite energy expended above CS (D´) can characterize an athlete's capabilities prior to the race start, but the pacing strategy that optimizes D´ utilization ultimately impacts whether a runner is in contention to win and whether a runner will have a fast final 400 m. Accordingly, D´ balance predicts final race finishing order.

Discernment of mediator and outcome measurement in the PACE trial

ObjectiveWhen measuring latent traits, such as those used in psychology and psychiatry, it can be unclear whether the instruments used are measuring different concepts. This issue is particularly important in the context of mediation analysis, since for a sound mediation hypothesis the mediator and outcome should be distinct. We sought to assess the extent of measurement overlap between cognitive and behavioural mediators and physical functioning and fatigue outcomes in a large trial of treatments for chronic fatigue syndrome. MethodsA secondary analysis of 640 participants in the “Pacing, graded Activity, and Cognitive behaviour therapy” trial was conducted. Potential measurement overlap was assessed using generalised linear latent variable models where confirmatory factor models quantified the extent to which the addition of cross-loading items significantly improved model fit. ResultsWe considered 13 mediators and two outcomes, giving a total of 26 mediator-outcome pairs. Of these, only six showed evidence of cross-loading items, supporting the suggestion that the chosen mediator and outcome constructs were conceptually distinct. ConclusionThis study highlights how established psychometric methods can be applied to assess measurement overlap in mediation analyses. We found minimal overlap between cognitive and behavioural mediators and physical functioning and fatigue outcomes that are often used in studies of chronic fatigue syndrome. The use of such methods in mediational studies where questionnaires are used to quantify latent traits would add to their robustness and transparency.

A Global Survey of Current Zoo Housing and Husbandry Practices for Fossa: A Preliminary Review

The fossa is a specialized Malagasy carnivore housed in ex situ facilities since the late 19th century. Moderate breeding success has occurred since the 1970s, and welfare issues (notably stereotypic pacing behaviour) are commonly documented. To understand challenges relating to fossa housing and husbandry (H&H) across global facilities and to identify areas of good practice that dovetail with available husbandry standards, a survey was distributed to ZIMS-registered zoos in 2017. Results showed that outdoor housing area and volume varied greatly across facilities, the majority of fossa expressed unnatural behaviours, with pacing behaviour the most frequently observed. All fossa received enrichment, and most had public access restricted to one or two sides of the enclosure. The majority of fossa were locked in/out as part of their daily management and forty-one percent of the fossa surveyed as breeding individuals bred at the zoo. Dense cover within an enclosure, restricted public viewing areas, a variable feeding schedule and limited view of another species from the fossa exhibit appear to reduce the risk of unnatural behavior being performed. The achievement of best practice fossa husbandry may be a challenge due to its specialized ecology, the limited wild information guiding captive care, and the range of housing dimensions and exhibit features provided by zoos that makes identification of standardized practices difficult. We recommended that holders evaluate how and when enrichment is provided and assess what they are providing for environmental complexity as well as consider how the public views their fossa.

Objectively-assessed physical activity and self-reported activity pacing in adults with multiple sclerosis: A pilot study

Objective: To examine the association between self-reported activity pacing (a strategy to manage fatigue symptoms) and objectively-measured physical activity behaviours in adults with multiple sclerosis. Design: Single cross-sectional study Setting: Multiple sclerosis rehabilitation centre in Colchester, United Kingdom. Subjects: Twenty-one adults (59 ± 9 years) with multiple sclerosis. Main measures: Physical activity behaviours (activity level: activity counts per minute; activity variability: highest activity counts per minute each day divided by activity counts per minute on that day) were measured with accelerometers. Self-reported activity pacing (Activity Pacing and Risk of Overactivity Questionnaire), fatigue severity (Fatigue Severity Scale) and health-related quality of life (RAND-12-Item Short-Form Health Survey) were measured. Scatter plots were used to explore associations between measures. Results: Activity level was 258 ± 133 counts per minutes, activity variability was 4 ± 1, self-reported activity pacing was 3 ± 1, fatigue severity was 5 ± 2 and health-related quality of life was 43 ± 8. Increased self-reported activity pacing was associated with lower activity levels and less variability in daily activities. Conclusion: This investigation suggests that people with multiple sclerosis who have low physical activity levels could be inappropriately using activity pacing as a reactionary response to their multiple sclerosis symptoms.

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE DAILY ACTIVITY BUDGET OF SUN BEAR (Helarctus malayanus) IN CAPTIVITY AND SEMI-CAPTIVITY

A comparative study on the daily activity budget of the sun bear was conducted in Lok Kawi Wildlife Park and Borneon Sun Bear Conservation Centre (BSBCC) Malaysia. The behaviour of 22 individuals was recorded using the Instantaneous scan sampling method. A total of 330 hr were collected, with 180 hr were collected at Lok Kawi Wildlife Park and 150 hr at BSBCC. Thirteen behavioural activities were recorded using the Ad-libitum sampling method in both captive and semi- captive bears, which were then grouped into three categories; active, passive, and abnormal behaviours classes and tabulated in an ethogram. Captive sun bears are kept permanently under human control, such as in zoos, while semi-captive sun bears are released to the forest during the day but kept in the cage at night. This study shows that semi-captive bears are significantly more active than captive bears. More passive and abnormal behaviours are present in captive bears. Stereotypic pacing scored the highest percentage of observation with 24% for abnormal behaviour in captive bears. Both captive and semi-captive bears showed a similar pattern of active and passive behavioural rhythms. The peak for active behaviours was from 1000 to 1100 hr, and the peak for passive behaviours was from 1300 to 1400 hr. In conclusion, although there was a difference in activities done between captive and semi-captive bears, the pattern of behavioural rhythms between both group of bears was similar. The introduction of enrichment programmes is crucial to captive bears to reduce stereotypic pacing behaviour.

Pacing behaviour of middle-long distance running & race-walking athletes at the IAAF U18 and U20 World Championship finals

ABSTRACT The current study analysed the pacing behaviour of athletes competing in the middle-long track event finals of the IAAF Under 18 and Under 20 World Championships between 2015 and 2018. Official finishing times, 1000-m split times and positioning data of 116 female and 153 male athletes, competing in the middle-long distance running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000 m) and race walking (5000 m and 10,000 m) events, were gathered. Repeated measures analysis of variance, with 1000-m speed as within-subjects factor and final ranking (medallist, Top 8 or Top 12, rest of the field) as between-subjects factor, was performed to compare the pacing behaviour between athletes. Positioning of the athletes was analysed by Kendall tau-b (Tb) correlation between the intermediate position and final position. Overall, medallists increased their speed throughout a race, with the exception of the 5000 m running event, in which a parabolic pacing behaviour was exhibited. The 1000-m segment in which a significant (P > 0.05) difference in speed was exhibited between differently ranked athletes coincided with a strong (Tb > 0.7) correlation between intermediate and final positioning. These combined results point towards a separation between the athletes during the race, as the Top 8 or Top 12 and the rest of the field are unable to match the speed of the medallists. The distance, discipline, sex, age category and behaviour of competitors all influence the pacing behaviour of young track athletes during international level competition, emphasising the importance and complexity of developing adequate pacing behaviour in track athletes. Highlights The distribution of effort over an exercise task (i.e. pacing) is an important factor in endurance exercise competition. The pacing behaviour of athletes is determined by many aspects, such as the biomechanical characteristics of the task, the exercise environment and the age of the athlete Sport specific competition data from youth athlete sports events can provide insight into the pacing behaviour of developing athletes. These insights could assist in the optimalisation of the development of pacing behaviour of young athletes in the future. The current study analysed the 1000-m split times and positioning data of athletes competing in the running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000) and racewalking (5000 m and 10,000m) finals of the U18 and U20 IAAF world-championship. The difference in final ranking impacted the pacing behaviour of the athletes, with the medallists increasing their speed throughout the race and the other athletes separating from the medallists either early (rest of field) or later in the race (Top 8 or Top 12 athletes).

Effects of different goal orientations and virtual opponents performance level on pacing strategy and performance in cycling time trials

ABSTRACT We investigated the effects of different performance goals (best time vs. beat the opponent) on pacing behaviour during a 10-km cycling race and explored the influence of different performance level of opponents on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), affective feelings and self-efficacy. Thirteen cyclists performed two time-trials (TT) and two races against a faster (FAST +6%) or a slower (SLOW –3%) virtual opponent. Power output (PO), RPE, affective feelings and self-efficacy were recorded at each kilometre point. Race average and race phases [starting (P1 = first kilometre); first half (P2 = 2nd–5th kilometre); second half (P3 = 6th–9th kilometre) and final sprint (FS = last kilometre)] were analysed. There was no difference in performance, assessed by race time between conditions (p = .84). PO during TT was lower in P3 compared to FS (p = .03; ES 0.6; 90%CI 0.4–0.7). In SLOW and FAST, PO was higher in P1 compared to other phases (p < .05). PO in FS was higher in TT compared to FAST (p = .01; ES −0.97; 90%IC −1.4 to −0.5). RPE increased and affective feelings decreased during all conditions. Self-efficacy was stable through TT and SLOW, but decreased during FAST with higher values in P1 compared to P2 (p = .01; ES −1.1; 90%IC −1.6 to −0.6), P3 (p < .001; ES −2.2; 90%IC −2.8 to −1.6) and FS (p < .001; ES −2.6; 90%IC −3.3 to −1.8). Pacing behaviour, specifically starting and final sprint, was affected by virtual opponents independent of performance level, demonstrating the importance of goal orientation. Highlights Adjustments in exercise intensity result from a complex decision-making process involving physiological, psychological, environmental and tactical information. Goal pursuit is an important determinant of pacing behaviour since athletes must balance their efforts with expectations of success. A competitive environment may be included to motivate participants to maintain their effort and at the same time to improve their self-confidence. The presence of a final sprint seems to be related to the goal orientation and perceived outcomes of success or failure.

Detection of Wandering Behaviors Using a Body-Worn Inertial Sensor in Patients With Cognitive Impairment: A Feasibility Study.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and AD related dementias (ADRD) often experience spatial disorientation that can lead to wandering behavior, characterized by aimless or purposeless movement. Wandering behavior has been associated with falls, caregiver burden, and nursing home placement. Despite the substantial clinical consequences of wandering, there is currently no standardized approach to objectively quantify wandering behavior. In this pilot feasibility study, we used a lightweight inertial sensor to examine mobility characteristics of a small group of 12 older adults with ADRD and mild cognitive impairment in their homes. Specifically, we evaluated their compliance with wearing a sensor for a minimum of 4 days. We also examined the ability of the sensor to measure turning frequency and direction changes, given that frequent turns and direction changes during walking have been observed in patients who wander. We found that all patients were able to wear the sensor yielding quantitative turn data including number of turns over time, mean turn duration, mean peak turn speed, and mean turn angle. We found that wanderers make more frequent, quicker turns compared to non-wanderers, which is consistent with pacing or lapping behavior. This study provides preliminary evidence that continuous monitoring in patients with dementia is feasible using a wearable sensor. More studies are needed to explore if objective measures of turning behaviors collected using inertial sensors can be used to identify wandering behavior.

The importance of pacing in basketball players with intellectual impairment: Input for evidence-based classification

ABSTRACT Pacing places a high demand on intellectual functioning and has been found useful for classification of athletes with intellectual impairments (II). This may also be true in open-loop sports like basketball. The current study aimed to investigate the pacing behaviour of basketball players with and without II. Using time-motion analysis, the activity of elite basketball players with II (n = 37) and amateur players without II (n = 34) was coded into four movement categories over eight periods of each game: standing, walking, running and jumping. Following two-way ANOVA, an effect of group showed differences between groups in duration and frequency of the movement categories within each period of the games. Additionally, an effect of time suggested that players in both groups paced their performances. However, no interaction was found, indicating that pacing may not be different between groups. In conclusion, the results suggest that due to the dynamic nature of basketball, the included players paced more intuitively by responding to environmental cues and using less deliberate planning. The players with II demonstrated slower games, which may be due to an impaired ability to make quick moment-to-moment deliberate decisions. These skills should be further studied in the context of evidence-based classification.

Acute caffeine reverses the disruptive effects of chronic fluoxetine on the sexual behavior of female and male rats.

Sexual side effects of chronic treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in humans include anorgasmia and loss of sexual desire and/or arousal which interferes with treatment compliance. There are few options at present to reduce these effects. Because orgasm and desire are mediated in part by activation of sympathetic arousal, we asked whether the sympathomimetic effects of acute caffeine treatment could reverse these effects. The present study examined whether acute treatment with caffeine (CAF; 10 or 20mg/kg, ip) versus vehicle could ameliorate the disruption of appetitive and consummatory measures of copulatory behavior produced by chronic fluoxetine (10mg/kg, sc) in adult, sexually active female or male rats. Sexually experienced female or male rats received daily injections of FLU over a 24-day period and were tested for sexual behaviors five times at 4-day intervals during this period in bilevel pacing chambers. Females had been ovariectomized and given hormone replacement with estradiol benzoate and progesterone prior to each test. Males were left gonadally intact. Four days after the final FLU test, rats were randomly assigned to one of the three doses of CAF and received ip injections of CAF or the saline vehicle 60min before testing. Chronic FLU reduced solicitations and lordosis over time in females and reduced the number of ejaculations in males. Both doses of CAF restored solicitations and lordosis in females and ejaculations in males. On their own, both doses of CAF increased females' pacing behavior and the number of mounts and intromissions in the males. Stimulation of sympathetic outflow by CAF may constitute a readily accessible on-demand treatment for the sexual side-effects of SSRIs.

The effect of playback of 22-kHz and 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations on rat behaviors assessed with a modified open-field test

Juvenile and adult rats emit two affectively different types of ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), namely aversive 22-kHz and appetitive 50-kHz USVs. Aversive 22-kHz USVs are considered to be alarm calls that communicate negative affective states to conspecific receivers. Although the alarming effects of playback of 22-kHz USVs were reported recently, behavioral data showing those effects are still not abundant. Appetitive 50-kHz USVs are considered to communicate positive affective states to conspecific receivers, to pace and coordinate social behavior. In line with this, playback of 50-kHz USVs has been found to initiate behavioral activation and induce approach behavior in receiver rats. However, most of these playback studies have used male 50-kHz USVs; thus, it seems to remain unclear whether female 50-kHz USVs exert a similar social attractant effect on male rats. To investigate these issues, we performed modified open-field tests, during which USVs were continuously presented for 15 min to male receivers. In these tests, if negative affective changes are evoked in subject rats, the time spent in the open arena decreases, while the time spent on defensive behaviors increases. In contrast, when positive affective changes are evoked, the opposite phenomenon is observed. Playback of male aversive 22-kHz USVs induced anxiety-related defensive responses in receivers. However, playback of female appetitive frequency-modulated (FM) 50-kHz USVs increased opposite, appetitive pattern of exploratory behavior with increased exploration. The results indicate that playback of male aversive 22-kHz and female appetitive 50-kHz USVs might induce behavioral responses probably associated with negative and positive affective states in male rats, respectively, suggesting the validity of rat USVs as an animal model of vocal communication of emotion.

Preexercise Cycling Protocol Alters Pacing Behavior in Competitive Time Trials.

The behavior of an opponent has been shown to alter pacing and performance. To advance our understanding of the impact of perceptual stimuli such as an opponent on pacing and performance, this study examined the effect of a preexercise cycling protocol on exercise regulation with and without an opponent. Twelve trained cyclists performed 4 experimental, self-paced 4-km time-trial conditions on an advanced cycle ergometer in a randomized, counterbalanced order. Participants started the time trial in rested state (RS) or performed a 10-min cycling protocol at 67% peak power output (CP) before the time trial. During the time trials, participants had to ride alone (NO) or against a virtual opponent (OP). The experimental conditions were (1)RS-NO, (2)RS-OP, (3)CP-NO, and (4)CP-OP. Repeated-measures analyses of variance (P < .05) were used to examine differences in pacing and performance in terms of power output. A faster pace was adopted in the first kilometer during RS-OP (318 [72]W) compared with RS-NO (291 [81]W; P = .03), leading to an improved finishing time during RS-OP compared with RS-NO (P = .046). No differences in either pacing or performance were found between CP-NO and CP-OP. The evoked response by the opponent to adopt a faster initial pace in the 4-km time trial disappeared when cyclists had to perform a preceding cycling protocol. The outcomes of this study highlight that perceived exertion alters the responsiveness to perceptual stimuli of cyclists during competition.

Changes in technique throughout a 1500-m speed skating time-trial in junior elite athletes: Differences between sexes, performance levels and competitive seasons.

Speed skating is a technical endurance sport. Still, little is known about technical changes in junior speed skaters. Therefore, changes in technique throughout a 1500-m time-trial of elite junior speed skaters is investigated to explore differences between sexes, performance levels and competitive seasons. At (inter)national 1500-m competitions, knee and push-off angles were obtained for 120 elite junior speed skaters (56 female, 64 male, age 17.6±1.1 years) per lap at 250m (lap 1), 650m (lap 2), 1050m (lap 3) and 1450m (lap 4). Additionally, 1500m end-times and lap-times were obtained to divide skaters in faster and slower performance groups and to analyze pacing behavior. Fifteen skaters (8 female, 7 male, age 17.3±1.5 years) were measured again after 1.6±0.6 years. (Repeated measures) ANOVAs were used for statistical analyses (p<0.05). ICC, determined in a pilot study, was 0.55 for knee and 0.76 for push-off angles. Elite junior speed skaters increased their knee angles throughout the race (p<0.005), regardless of sex (p = 0.110) or performance level (p = 0.714). Push-off angles increased from lap 1–3 (p<0.001), in which men showed a larger decay than female skaters (p<0.05), this holds for both performance groups (p = 0.103). Faster skaters had smaller knee and push-off angles than slower skaters (p<0.05). Males showed smaller body angles than females (p<0.001). Faster male and female skaters showed a relative slower start and faster lap 3 compared to slower skaters (p<0.05). Development over competitive seasons showed a shift towards smaller push-off angles (p = 0.038) and less decay in knee angles from lap 2–3 (p = 0.026). The present study shows that technique throughout the 1500m deteriorates. Deterioration in technique is regardless of performance level, even with different pacing behaviors. Differences between sexes were found for push-off angles. The longitudinal development suggests changes in technique towards senior level and highlights the importance of studying juniors separate from seniors.

Evaluation of the Impact of Behavioral Opportunities on Four Zoo-Housed Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer).

Simple SummaryEvaluations of enrichment are critical to determine whether or not the goals of an enrichment program are being achieved. However, evaluations can be challenging if a species’ active period occurs outside of their caretakers’ normal schedule. Aardvarks are an understudied, nocturnal species, and our aim was to assess how they used their enrichment (nightly and throughout the study), if enrichment achieved the stated behavioral goals, and the subsequent effects of goal-achieving enrichment on the aardvarks’ welfare. Four aardvarks were given seven different enrichment items based on two behavioral goals, foraging and exploring, and were observed three times during the night. The aardvarks’ enrichment use was impacted based on the goal of the enrichment, with aardvarks using the enrichment aimed at promoting foraging behavior more when enrichment was first given compared to enrichment that promoted exploring. However, exploring enrichment was used more later in the night. The enrichment did appear to achieve the stated behavioral goals, and the aardvarks continued using the enrichment throughout the entire eight-week study. In addition, there were increased affiliative and decreased agonistic interactions with more enrichment use, linking the achievement of these goals to positive indicators of welfare. The data presented contribute to the current knowledge on goal-based enrichment and its impact on animal welfare.Evaluations of enrichment are critical to determine if an enrichment program is meeting stated goals. However, nocturnal species can present a challenge if their active periods do not align with caretakers’ schedules. To evaluate enrichment for four aardvarks housed with a natural light cycle, we provided seven different enrichment items aimed at fulfilling two behavioral goals: exploring and foraging. We wanted to understand how the aardvarks used enrichment, if enrichment promoted the defined goals, and how enrichment that achieves its goals affects welfare indicators, including rates of pacing and social behaviors, behavioral diversity, and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites. Twenty-minute observations from video were performed three times a night for a total of 224 observed hours. We found significant differences in how the aardvarks used items from the two enrichment goals throughout the night, with foraging enrichment used more than exploring at first and exploring enrichment used more later. We found that items promoted their defined goals, and aardvarks showed no evidence of habituation throughout the eight-week study. The impact on selected welfare indicators provided evidence of potentially positive changes, including increased affiliative and decreased agonistic interactions accompanying increases in goal behaviors. These results contribute to the current knowledge available on the impact of goal-directed behavioral opportunities on zoo animal welfare.

Different race pacing strategies among runners covering the 2017 Berlin Marathon under 3 hours and 30 minutes.

The purposes of this study were 1) to analyse the different pacing behaviours based on athlete's performance and 2) to determine whether significant differences in each race split and the runner's performance implied different race profiles. A total of 2295 runners, which took part in Berlin's marathon (2017), met the inclusion criteria. 4 different groups were created based on sex and performance. Men: Elite (<02:19:00 h), Top 1 (<02:30:00 h), Top 2 (<02:45:00 h) and Top 3 (<03:00:00 h); women: Elite (02:45:00 h), Top 1 (<03:00:00 h), Top 2 (<03:15:00 h), Top 3 (<03:30:00 h). With the aim of comparing the pacing between sex and performance the average speed was normalized. In men, no statistically significant changes were found between performance group and splits. A large number of significant differences between splits and groups were found amongst women: 5-10 km Top 2 vs Top 3 (P = 0.0178), 10-15 km Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0211), 15-20 km Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0382), 20-21.1 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0129); Elite vs Top 3 (P = 0.0020); Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0233); Top 1 vs Top 3 (P = 0.0007), 25-30 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0273); Elite vs Top 3 (P = 0.0156), 30-35 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0096); Top 1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0198); Top2 vs Top3 (P = 0.0069). In men there were little significant differences based on athletes' performance which implied a similar pacing behaviour. Women presented numerous differences based on their performance which suggested different pacing behaviours.

Within Daily Analysis Of Physical Activity Behaviour In Adults With Multiple Sclerosis

Little is known about the dynamic association between activity pacing and actual physical activity behaviour within the daily routines of persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). Understanding the association between activity pacing and actual physical activity behaviour is relevant to help optimise health promoting behaviour. PURPOSE: To explore how activity pacing relates to actual physical activity behaviours in adults with MS. METHODS: 21 persons with MS (mean age= 59 ± 9 years) wore an accelerometer for 7 days to assess physical activity behaviours and filled in questionnaires on their engagement in pacing and perceived risk of overactivity (5-point Activity Pacing and Risk of Overactivity Questionnaire), fatigue (7-point Fatigue Severity Scale), and Health-related quality of life (RAND-12). Physical activity behaviours were assessed by examining activity level (7-day average activity counts per minute) and activity variability (7-day average highest activity counts per minute each day divided by activity counts per minute on that day). The relationships between the variables were examined using hierarchical regression models. RESULTS: Engagement in pacing, perceived risk of overactivity, activity level and variability were 2.25 ± .74, 2.38 ± 1.02, 241.07 (144.68) and 3.96 ± .72 respectively. Lower activity level was related to higher engagement in pacing (β = -.438, t = -2.66, p =.024). Higher activity level was associated with higher perceived risk of overactivity (β = .494, t = 2.84, p = .018). No relations were found between activity variability and engagement in pacing (β = -.225, t = -.96, p = .361) and between activity variability and perceived risk of overactivity (β = .149, t = .599, p = .562). CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that those with lower activity levels may experience worsening symptoms with respect to physical disability, and may be more inclined and aware to pace their activities. Conversely, those with higher activity levels may experience less disruption through fatigue in daily life and may resort to the execution of too long periods of activity which may cause overactivity. Guidance on optimal use of pacing may be beneficial for persons with MS and improve their physical activity behaviour.

Effects of Knowing the Task's Duration on Soccer Players' Positioning and Pacing Behaviour During Small-Sided Games.

The study aimed to identify how the manipulation of knowledge regarding a training task duration constrains the pacing and tactical behaviour of soccer players when playing small-sided games (SSG). Twenty professional and experienced soccer players participated in a cross-sectional field study using three conditions: not informed on the duration of the SSG, which ended after 20 min (Unknown Condition); briefed about playing the SSG for 10 min, but after they completed the 10-min game, they were requested to complete another 10 min (Partial Condition) and informed before that they would play for 20 min (Known Condition). A global positioning system was used to measure the total distance covered and distances of different exercise training zones (walking to sprinting) and to access the dynamic players positioning through the distance from each player to all the teammates and opponents. Additionally, approximate entropy was measured to identify the regularity pattern of each gathered individual variable. The results indicate that the first 10 min of each scenario presented a higher physical impact independently of the initial information. During this time, the tactical behaviour also revealed higher variability. An increase in the distance of the teammates during the second period of 10-min for the Known scenario was also found, which may result from a lower pacing strategy. This study showed that the prior knowledge of the task duration led to different physical and tactical behaviours of the players. Furthermore, the relationship between the physical impact and the regularity of team game patterns should be well analysed by the coach, because the physical impact may be harmful to the development of the collective organization of the team.

Abnormal Animals

Stereotyped pacing, self-biting, coprophagia, and other such behaviors have long been observed among animals in menageries and zoos. Yet it was only in the mid-twentieth century that such phenomena were scientifically problematized as abnormal—as deleterious modifications of natural behavioral norms due to captivity, specifically, anthropogenic modes of enclosure and exhibition that inadequately transposed natural environmental conditions. In the course of the biological modernization of zoological gardens, abnormal animal behaviors became knowable as psychological maladjustments to be remediated through productive biopolitical interventions. Reading zoo biologists Heini Hediger and Monica Meyer-Holzapfel, their psychological interpreters such as Henri Ellenberger, and philosophers of abnormality Georges Canguilhem and Michel Foucault, this essay will elucidate the scientific knowledge and practices that identified these abnormalities and sought to ameliorate them, thereby producing their own unrecognized transformations. It will also reflect on the more general significance of this dynamic for human-animal relations in the behavioral anthropocene.

Beyond Caring: Human-Animal Interdependency: A Response

Stereotyped pacing, self-biting, coprophagia, and other such behaviors have long been observed among animals in menageries and zoos. Yet it was only in the mid-twentieth century that such phenomena were scientifically problematized as abnormal—as deleterious modifications of natural behavioral norms due to captivity, specifically, anthropogenic modes of enclosure and exhibition that inadequately transposed natural environmental conditions. In the course of the biological modernization of zoological gardens, abnormal animal behaviors became knowable as psychological maladjustments to be remediated through productive biopolitical interventions. Reading zoo biologists Heini Hediger and Monica Meyer-Holzapfel, their psychological interpreters such as Henri Ellenberger, and philosophers of abnormality Georges Canguilhem and Michel Foucault, this essay will elucidate the scientific knowledge and practices that identified these abnormalities and sought to ameliorate them, thereby producing their own unrecognized transformations. It will also reflect on the more general significance of this dynamic for human-animal relations in the behavioral anthropocene.

The availability of task-specific feedback does not affect 20 km time trial cycling performance or test-retest reliability in trained cyclists

ObjectivesThis study examined the influence of the availability of task-specific feedback on 20 km time trial (20TT) cycling performance and test-retest reliability. DesignThirty trained, club-level cyclists completed two 20TT’s on different days, with (feedback, FB) or without (no-feedback, NFB) task-specific feedback (i.e., power output, cadence, gear and heart rate [HR]). Elapsed distance was provided in both conditions. MethodsDuring trials, ergometer variables and HR were continuously recorded, and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was collected every 2 km. Data were analysed using linear mixed-effects models in a Bayesian framework, and Cohen’s d was calculated for standardised differences. The reliability of finish time and mean power output (PO) was determined via multiple indices, including intraclass correlations (ICC). ResultsPerformance, pacing behaviour, and RPE were not statistically different between conditions. The posterior mean difference [95% credible interval] between TT1 and TT2 for FB and NFB was 10s [−5, 25] and −2s [−17, 14], respectively. In TT2, HR was statistically higher (∼8bmin−1) in FB compared to NFB after 13 km (d = 2.08–2.25). However, this result was explained by differences in maximal HR. Finish time (FB: ICC= 0.99; NFB: ICC=0.99) and mean power output (FB: ICC=0.99; NFB: ICC=0.99) in each condition were substantially reliable. ConclusionsThe availability of task-specific information did not affect 20TT performance or reliability. Except for elapsed distance, task-specific feedback should be withheld from trained cyclists when evaluating interventions that may affect performance, to prevent participants from recalling previous performance settings.