Symptoms Of Overtraining Research Articles

Performance in professional soccer players: normative data and benchmarks from official matches for metabolic power and high-intensity activities.

The opportunity to compare data among players using normative data and benchmarks may represent a helpful tool for coaches to assess the players' physical performance easily and quickly. This study aimed to create normative data and benchmarks that can be exploited to compare professional soccer players' physical capacity competing in the Premier Division Championship (series A). Match data from six professional soccer teams competing in the Premier Division championship (Serie A and Italy Cup matches) were collected during the entire season. Players (N.=112) were divided based on the role positioning as follows: forwards and wingers (FW), midfielders (MF), side-backs (SB), and center-backs (CB). All the teams analyzed competed with a 4-3-3 formation, and only players who played for the entire match (85-95 minutes) were considered. The video analysis system STATS SportVU was used to collect the data during official matches. Average metabolic power (AP) was considered to estimate the energy cost. The number of power events (PE), distance (m) covered at more than 25 W/kg (D25), and finally, the distance covered at v>25 km/h (VHS) were considered as high-intensity assessments. Standardized T-scores (scaled from 0 to 100) were calculated for each role and variable. T-score data was used to create performance bands combined with qualitative description (ranging from extremely poor to excellent), and a traffic light system approach was implemented to simplify the data's interpretation. The results could be used to compare different athletes' performance quickly and effectively, to detect symptoms of overtraining, and to give helpful insights to coaches on what the training should be focused on.

The Association between Training Frequency, Symptoms of Overtraining and Injuries in Young Men Soccer Players.

Overtraining is a prevalent issue among young men soccer players, particularly those who are driven to enhance their skills. While an intense training volume and effort might contribute to athletic growth, it can also have negative implications, including injury. The current study aimed at examining the association between training frequency, symptoms of overtraining and injuries in young men soccer players. A path analysis approach was used to examine the causal relationships between variables. The sample consisted of 189 young men soccer players aged 13-17 years old (age = 14.81, SD = 1.37). Participants reported that they were training, on average, 5.77 days (SD = 1.53) per week. Athletes were competing at a regional (n = 100) or national (n = 89) level. Concerning injuries, participants indicated, on average, 2.03 (SD = 1.16) injuries since they started practicing soccer. The results displayed a significant association, as theoretically expected, namely: (i) training frequency was significantly associated with overtraining symptoms (β = 0.15 [IC95% = 0.01, 0.29]); (ii) overtraining symptoms were significantly associated with the number of injuries (β = 0.19 [IC95% = 0.02, 0.35]). An indirect effect between training frequency and injuries was also observed (β = 0.15 [IC95% = 0.01, 0.29]). Thus, there is preliminary evidence that overtraining symptoms could play a mediating role. In conclusion, investigating the links between overtraining symptoms and injury in young men soccer players is critical, as it can assist in identifying overtraining warning signs, promote young players' health and safety, customize training regimens to individual needs, and contribute to a better understanding of sports-related injuries.

Oxidative Stress, Testosterone, Cortisol, and Vitamin D: Differences in Professional Soccer Players of African and Caucasian Origin

Background: Under conditions of intense exercise, the production of free radicals and cortisol increases, whereas blood levels of testosterone and vitamin D decrease. The aim of the study was to evaluate the behavior of these parameters, ethnic differences, and their relationships with overtraining. Materials and Methods: Fifty professional soccer players were studied. Oxidative stress, testosterone, cortisol, and vitamin D were collected in pre- and mid-competitive season, and their differences in Africans and Caucasians were evaluated. Results: An increase in oxidative stress was observed in mid-season in both groups, but this was more significant in Africans (386 ± 162.6 vs. 277.8 ± 106.9 UCarr, p = 0.005; 2,965.4 ± 815.8 vs. 2,560.6 ± 608.1 BAP, p = 0.035). Levels of testosterone and vitamin D were higher in August compared to February in all participants; in both months, testosterone levels were higher in Africans (11.5 ± 2.4 vs. 9.1 ± 2.6, p = 0.004; 10.3 ± 1.6 vs. 7.7 ± 2.3, p = 0.000), whereas vitamin D levels were higher in Caucasians (39.4 ± 11.1 vs. 33.4 ± 9.7, p = 0.048; 31.8 ± 9.7 vs. 27.4 ± 9.4, in August and February, respectively). Insufficient/deficient levels of vitamin D were more frequently observed in Africans, but the difference was close to significance only in August. Conclusions: Although lower levels of vitamin D and higher levels of cortisol and oxidative stress in mid-season in Africans could have a negative influence on performance, no symptoms of overtraining were observed, probably due to higher levels of testosterone which enable homeostatic balance.

OVERTRAINING SYNDROME IN ATHLETES

Aim: The aim of our study is to reveal the effect of training overload on athletes. Overtraining syndrome (overtraining) is a very difficult, systemic and complex condition to diagnose. This syndrome occurs with decrease in performance, fatigue, deterioration in sleep patterns, and changes in social behavior when the training load increases unconsciously. Many factors affect the rate and recovery time of overtraining syndrome. These factors are the result of continuous loading, load differential, load tolerance and recovery. The coach needs to plan both the training and the recovery process well. Because optimal performance depends on maintaining the delicate balance between training and recovery. Method: Our study is a compilation obtained to provide information from studies on overtraining syndrome. Findings: In the literature, the symptoms of overtraining are examined under 3 headings as sympathetic, parasympathetic and other symptoms. Conclusion: In order to prevent overtraining syndrome, it is necessary to avoid possible effects that harm team performance. Trainers can facilitate this by changing the training period with the recovery period. In addition, they can help their athletes get rid of this syndrome by using techniques such as mild aerobic activities, massage, hot and cold baths, diet, adequate sleep and psychological relaxation. Recommendation: Nutrition, sleep and rest patterns, recovery efforts (regeneration), emotional support, oxygen administration, medication, etc. are the factors that can treat overtraining syndrome.

Monitoring of overtraining and motivation in elite soccer players

Aim: This study aimed to monitor the behavior of the overtraining and motivations dimensions, as well as to verify whether these dimensions correlate in the preparatory and competitive periods over the season. Methods: Professional soccer players (n = 32) answered the Stress and Recovery Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport 76) and the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) during the preparatory and competitive periods. Results: Intrinsic amotivation and sport-specific recovery were lower in the competitive period than in the preparatory period. In the preseason, motivation presented a strong and negative correlation with overall recovery (p = 0.001; r = −0.75; r2 = 0.56) and sport-specific recovery (p = 0.001; r = −0.72; r2 = 0.52). The amotivation explained in 56% the variance of the results of the overall recovery and 52% of the sport-specific recovery. During the competitive phase, amotivation showed a strong and positive correlation with overall stress (p = 0.001; r = 0.70; r2 = 0.49) and sport-specific stress (p = 0.001; r = 0.79; r2 = 0.62). The amotivation accounted for 49% of the variance in the results of the overall stress and 62% of sport-specific stress in soccer players. Conclusion: There are associations between overtraining and motivation during the investigated periods. Through longitudinal monitoring in professional soccer, it was verified that the dimensions of amotivation, overall recovery, and sport-specific stress could be related to the prevention symptoms of overtraining in a professional soccer team.

Long-term effects of honey solution on Th1/Th2 cytokine balance in military graduates with psychological symptoms of over-training

Background: Physical exercise in certain conditions can cause over-training syndrome in individuals, which is associated with inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses by cytokines. The balance of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines can indicate the strength of the immune system against pathogens. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 6 weeks of honey solution on the balance consumption of interferon-gamma and interleukin4. Materials and Methods: This semi-experimental study has been performed by pre-test-post-test with two groups of placebo and honey syrup. For investigation, 70 individuals from the available population, including military graduates, have been examined using an over-training psychological questionnaire and finally, using blood markers (cortisol and testosterone), an over-training test of 38 people with age range of (75/1±75/20) years, and body mass index of (19/4±1/7 kg/m2) have been selected and randomly divided into two groups of 19 individuals: placebo and honey syrup. In order to measure serum levels of interferon-gamma and interleukin-4, before and after 6 weeks of consuming honey solution, 5 cc of blood has been taken from the arm vein and measured by ELISA. Results: The changes in cytokines levels have been investigated using the independent t-test in the SPSS software version 22. Following the use of honey syrup, compared with the placebo group, an increase in interferon-gamma levels and a decrease in interleukin-4 have been observed, which was a significant difference (P <0.05). Conclusion: 6 weeks consumption of honey syrup promoted the balance of interferon-gamma and interleukin cytokines to reduce the side effects of over-training on the immune system.

Зв'язок даних спортивного анамнезу професійних легкоатлетів зі стійкою прегіпертензією в підготовчому періоді річного макроциклу

Prehypertension is considered a significant risk factor for the development of arterial hypertension. A syndrome of overtraining and associated dysfunctional disorders of the autonomic nervous system may be the cause of an increase of blood pressure. However, clear criteria for the diagnosis of this syndrome have not yet been established, and the study of the meaning of symptoms, including anamnestic ones, continues. The purpose of the study was to establish a connection between the anamnesis data of professional athletes with sustained prehypertension during the preparatory period of the training macrocycle. Material and methods. We examined 30 professional athletes, who were distributed into two groups which were representative by age and sex, depending on their blood pressure values. All subjects underwent blood pressure monitoring, anthropometric and physical examinations, inquiries regarding complaints, training activity and sports history. Results and discussion. The study showed that athletes with high normal blood pressure indicated higher exercise intensity, a predominance of anaerobic activity during their training, an increase in the intensity of exercise in the last three months; sleep disturbances and a decrease in exercise tolerance was significantly more frequent in this group. The last two factors have the most significant impact on the relative risk of blood pressure increase. A sustained high normal blood pressure in professional athletes during the preparatory period of the training macrocycle is associated with the development of signs of fatigue and overtraining, which we noted in our study. The latter determines both the need for more in-depth examination, monitoring of such patients and the importance of the further scientific study of the problem. We also noted significant differences in the characteristics of training activity: athletes with prehypertension had a higher level of physical activity in training, which was 8.33 ± 0.71 points on the scale of training intensity RPE (against 7.0 ± 1.26 points in the group persons with optimal blood pressure, p = 0.006), they also had the highest percentage of anaerobic work (p = 0.004). Conclusion. Timely detection of maladaptation syndrome in professional athletes in the preparatory period can be useful as support for feedback from the athlete, and monitoring blood pressure during the week in a comfortable environment for the athlete. There is a need for further research to determine the prognostic value of symptoms of overtraining in terms of increased blood pressure, as well as the likely dependence of these changes on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of physical activity

Symptoms of Overtraining in Resistance Exercise: International Cross-Sectional Survey.

To provide details on the nature and symptomatic profile of training maladaptation in competitive resistance-based athletes to examine whether there are symptoms that may be used as prognostic indicators of overtraining. Identifying prognostic tools to assess for training maladaptation is essential for avoiding severe overtraining conditions. A Web-based survey was distributed to a cross-sectional convenience sample of competitive athletes involved in sports with a significant resistance-training component. The 46-item anonymous survey was distributed via industry experts and social media from July to August 2019. The final sample included 605 responses (completion rate: 84%). About 71% of the respondents indicated that they had previously experienced an unexplained decrease in performance. Among those, the majority reported a performance decrement lasting 1 wk to 1 mo (43.8%). General feelings of fatigue were the most frequent self-reported symptom of maladaptation. Acute training maladaptation, lasting <1 mo, was also accompanied by symptoms of musculoskeletal aches and pain. In the majority of cases (92.5%), training maladaptation was accompanied by additional nontraining stressors. A greater proportion of the respondents with more severe maladaptation (>4 mo) were training to muscle failure. The results from this study support the multifactorial nature of training maladaptation. The multidimensional nature of fatigue and individual variability in symptomatic responses precludes definitive prognostic symptoms or differential diagnostic factors of functional/nonfunctional overreaching or the overtraining syndrome in resistance exercise.

Self-reported Stress And Well-being Impacts Immune Response To Maximal Exercise In Collegiate Swimmers

Exposure to acute psychological and physiological stressors is associated with impairments in immune function including reduced exercise-induced mobilization of naïve (NA) T-cells and increased mobilization of antigen-specific, highly differentiated T-cells following maximal exercise. However, the impact of sustained stressors on the immune response to maximal exercise is unknown. PURPOSE: Characterize the impact of self-reported stress and well-being on lymphocyte responses to acute bouts of exercise in collegiate swimmers over six months. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from fifteen NCAA D1 swimmers (7 M, 6 F: 19.8 ± 0.7 y) before and after maximal swims at two timepoints (V1: immediately post-season 1 and V3: early season 2). An additional mid-off season timepoint (V2) was collected in a subset of nine swimmers. T-cells were quantified by flow cytometry, and self-reported measures of sleep quality (PSQI), symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI, WURRS-21), and overtraining (DALDA) were collected. Linear mixed models were used to determine the effects of exercise, season timepoint, and their interaction on lymphocyte percentages (α=0.05). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to assess correlations between lymphocyte percentages and stress measures. RESULTS: Lower sleep quality was correlated with greater resting and post-exercise senescent CD4+ T-cell percentages (r= 0.44, p= 0.01; r= 0.47, p = 0.004, respectively). Low sleep quality was also correlated with lower post-exercise NA CD4+ T-cells (r= -0.35, p= 0.04). Higher ratings of self-reported symptoms of URTI (r= 0.38, p= 0.02) and overtraining (r= 0.38, p= 0.02) were correlated with greater post-exercise senescent CD4+ T-cell percentages. Compared to pre-exercise, post-exercise NA CD8+ T-cell percentages were lower at V1 and V2, while CD8+ T-cell percentages were higher post-exercise (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Elevations in stress and well-being at rest adversely impacted immune response to maximal exercise in collegiate swimmers. Impaired sleep quality and higher URTI and overtraining symptoms were associated with an exacerbated exercise-induced mobilization of senescent CD8+ T-cells, highlighting the importance of monitoring athlete stress level and overall well-being throughout the competitive season.

Thyroid hormones and commonly cited symptoms of overtraining in collegiate female endurance runners

Overtraining syndrome (OTS) is reported in endurance sports. Thyroid hormones (TH) regulate metabolism, mood, and energy production, and may play a role in OTS of endurance athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships in TH and symptoms of OTS in track and field endurance runners (ER). Sixteen female track and field middle distance (MD; n = 9; age: 20.2 ± 1.5years; ht: 167.86 ± 5.04cm; body-mass: 57.97 ± 5.05kg; VO2MAX: 53.62 ± 6.04ml/kg/min) and long distance (LD; n = 7; age: 20.5 ± 1.5years; ht: 162.48 ± 6.11cm; body-mass: 56.15 ± 5.99kg; VO2MAX: 61.94 ± 3.29ml/kg/min) ER participated in this descriptive study (15-weeks). Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T 3), and thyroxine (T 4), were collected at pre-(PRE) and post-season (POST). A fatigue scale was administered weekly, and percent change (PΔ) in race time (season best vs. championship performance) was calculated. Wilcoxon-sign ranked tests and Spearman's rho correlations were used to determine changes and relationships between TH and performance. TSH, T 3 and T 4 did not change from PRE to POST. The percent change (PΔ) in T 3 from PRE to POST was correlated with running performance at the end of the season (ρ = - 0.70, p = 0.036). Fatigue at week 12 correlated with running performance at the end of the season (ρ = -0.74, p = 0.004). TH may be valuable in assessing the overall training state of ER. TH concentrations change too slowly to be a frequent marker of monitoring OTS, but are related to markers of decreased performance. Monitoring dietary intake, and fatigue may be predictive markers to assess OTS and training status of female ER.

Approach to the Underperforming Athlete.

Children and adolescents who participate in intense sports training may face physical and psychologic stresses. The pediatric health care provider can play an important role in monitoring an athlete's preparation by obtaining a proper sports history, assessing sleep hygiene, discussing nutrition and hydration guidelines, and evaluating physiologic causes of fatigue. Educating parents and athletes on the potential risks of high-intensity training, inadequate rest and sleep, and a poor diet may improve the athlete's performance and prevent symptoms of overtraining syndrome. Infectious mononucleosis must also be considered a cause of fatigue among adolescents. The signs and symptoms of overtraining and burnout are discussed in this article.

24th Symposyum Croatian Society of Medical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Laboratory medicine in sports

Introduction:Intensive exercising may significantly damage muscles which is reflected in pain, fatigue and the increase of muscle proteins concentrations in blood such are creatinin kinase (CK), lactic dehydrogenase (LD), myoglobin (MB) and other biochemical parameters including urea serum concentration (SU). Biochemical markers vary with age, sex, race, muscle mass, physical activity and climate conditions. They also assist us in determining the limit between the capacity for adaptation to given training process which results in supercomepensation and in condition of overtraining (OT), in the case of load that exceeds the physiologic potential of regeneration. Concerning the problem of diagnosis and explanation of the symptoms of overtraining, markers that can apply reliably and with sufficient sensitivity and simplicity of interpretation in the praxis are sought. It is critical to take into account difference among individuals and groups that could hamper the interpretation.The most frequently used markers:The most frequently used biomarkers that provide us with the information on physical activity and on the amount of load through exercise are CK, SU and LD. Level of serum retaining kinas has been measured and interpreted for years as part of different scientific and professional investigations and presents one of basic parameters for determining the level of muscle damage. It reaches maximal concentration of the fourth day of exercising which depends on the type of exercise and the nature of stress triggered by exercise but also on individual characteristics.The level of serum urea presents marker of nitric compounds metabolism and is the principle chemical substance in the urine of mammals. It is thus possible to draw a parallel between the increases of serum urea concentration on increased degradations of proteins. Significant fall of serum amino acid levels occurs after sixty to seventy minutes of exercising with the increase of urea and free tyrosine and these changes have high correlation with the duration and intensity of.LD changes are important index of well-trained sportsmen and their capability to withstand the pace and force during strain in the training process. The level of LD is a good index of exercise intensity and marker of metabolic exchange in tissues whose concentration in serum is dependent of cell damage.Conclusion:There is not a single, unique parameter that would provide enough valuable information for the estimation of the quality of exercising, amount of load and identification of overtraining. Delayed measurement of biomarkers is far from ideal, but it is obvious that the amount of stress/ load in training is the most important factor for the development of state of overtraining. Daily body weight control, diet, biochemical indices values and the input of water should be known and standardized before measurements. For the most of parameters determination of basal levels are needed in specific populations for more accurate interpretation and evaluation of results. The sampling process itself should be under the most strict conditions of standardization by repeating measurement at least every third day. Dependence of mentioned parameters (SU, CK, LD) on exercise intensity varies among individuals and without these additional measurements and subpopulation evaluations it is difficult to come to conclusions with certainty as well as to come to conclusions on causative correlations of training load and dynamic in biochemical parameters.

Effects of 21 Days of Intensified Training on Markers of Overtraining

The purpose of this study was to impose a period of quantifiable intensified training to determine if commonly used diagnostic markers of overtraining parallel changes in physical performance and thus overtraining status. Eight trained male cyclists (24 ± 1 years, 71 ± 3 kg, VO2peak = 4.5 ± 0.1·L·min⁻¹) performed 21 days (3,211 km) of intensified training in the field where volume and intensity were increased over normal training. Salivary IgA, testosterone, and cortisol, 1-hour time trial performance, heart rate response, and profile of mood states (POMS) were collected and analyzed throughout the 21-day training period. The POMS category vigor declined from day 1 to day 4 and remained lower throughout (p < 0.05). There were no other statistical changes in overtraining parameters. However, individuals who demonstrated 2 or more symptoms of overtraining at any point throughout the 21 days were considered symptomatic and had a lower (p < 0.05) VO2peak (4.2 ± 0.1·vs. 4.7 ± 0.1 L·min⁻¹) and lower (p < 0.05) average workload during the initial 1-hour time trial (253 ± 5 vs. 288 ± 14 W). Interestingly, the 1-hour time trial power in these individuals with symptoms of overtraining did not decline (p > 0.05). These data demonstrate that markers of overtraining do not parallel a decrease in performance and should be interpreted with caution.

The Rodeo Athlete

A previous instalment to this review focused on the sport science for rodeo, the history behind the sport and what is currently known about the physical and physiological status, coronary risk profile, strength and power levels, event-specific kinesiological and biomechanical aspects, nutritional habits and psychological indices associated with the rodeo athlete. In regards to injury, rodeo is well known for its high-velocity, high-impact atmosphere where athletes compete against the clock and uncooperative livestock. Considered by many to be a dangerous sport with high vulnerability towards trauma and frequent injuries, animal/human contact events comprise ∼80% of reported injuries. Severe trauma includes fractures, dislocations, subluxations, concussions, ligament ruptures, pneumothorax and various neurapraxias. Head and neck trauma account for 10-29% of total trauma and up to 63% of upper body injuries, with concussion incidence rates of 3.4 per 1000 competitive exposures. The incidence of thoracic, back and abdominal injuries comprise 11-84% of trauma, while shoulder injuries, involving anterior/posterior arthralgia, inflammation, instability and increasing weakness, account for 8-15% of upper extremity cases. Lower extremity trauma accounts for 26-34% of cases, with the majority involving the knee. Many believe that the incidence of trauma is underestimated, with studies hampered by numerous limitations such as a lack of injury awareness, missing data, poor injury recall, an array of reporting sources, delays in subject response and treatment, no uniform definition of injury or reporting system and predisposing factors prior to injury. Primary mechanisms of injuries are attributed to physical immaturity, fatigue, age and experience, behaviour, the violent nature of the sport and lack of adequate medical intervention. Although there is limited adherence to organized conditioning programmes, when properly planned, sport-specific conditioning may enhance athletic potential, minimize predisposition to injury and enhance recovery. Education in care and rehabilitation should be spearheaded by the medical community to reduce injury, as several studies have linked trauma to poor technique, inexperience and poor judgement. Medical services should encompass emergency medical oversight for trauma at all levels and press toward preventive care. Competitors should also be cognizant of the signs and symptoms of overtraining, a condition exacerbated by overuse and minimal recovery. The use of helmets, taping, bracing, protective vests, cervical collars and mouthpieces is gaining popularity but has not been thoroughly studied. Guidelines requiring padding of chutes, gates or equipment essential for performance may also avert trauma. Whether increases in knowledge, education and technology are able to reduce predisposition to injury among this population, remains to be seen. As with all high-risk sports, the answer may lie in increased wisdom and responsibility of coaches and athletes to ensure an adequate level of ability, self-control and common sense as they compete in this sport.

Relation between the concentration of salivary testosterone and cortisol, performance, competitive motivation with overtraining of elite wrestlers

Introduction: Some related factors of overtraining have been recognized, but the attempt for more information still continues in this area. Therefore, the purpose of present study was investigation of the relationship between the concentration of salivary testosterone and cortisol, the ratio between them, sport performance and competitive motivation with early psychological symptoms of overtraining in Iranian elite wrestlers.

Stressors and affective states among professional rugby union players

The purpose of the present study was to examine (a) the sources of sport and non-sport stress and their associated symptoms on rest days, training days, and match days and (b) the temporal aspects of sources and symptoms of stress and affective states. Professional male rugby union players (n=16) completed the Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes (DALDA) and the Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL) for 28 days. On match days players reported that few stressors were "worse than normal." Most stressors were "worse than normal" on training days followed by rest days and more stressors were "worse than normal" on the day after a match than on match days. Further, players reported an unpleasant, low activation state across the three analysis days, suggesting they were in an overtrained state. The findings of this study demonstrate that professional rugby players experience negative affect and a multitude of sport and non-sport stressors. Early detection of stressors and negative affective states could help prevent symptoms of overtraining and burnout and facilitate optimal training and sporting performance. Coaches and practitioners are encouraged to integrate the DALDA and AD ACL in their training and performance monitoring regimes.

Níveis de beta-endorfina em resposta ao exercício e no sobretreinamento

Overtraining (OT) is a complex and multifactorial sport phenomenon, and there is no independent marker that can diagnose OT. Interestingly, some symptoms of OT are related to beta-endorphin (beta-end(1-31)) effects. Some of its effects, such as analgesia, increasing lactate tolerance, and exercise-induced euphoria, are important for training. These effects can be reverted by detraining or OT, which may cause decrease in performance, reduced load tolerance, and depression. The main stimulus for beta-end(1-31) secretion is to exercise because its secretion is volume/intensity dependent for both aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Excess training, however, may reduce beta-end(1-31) concentrations, thus altering its beneficial effects. Therefore, beta-end(1-31) could be used as an additional OT marker, mainly because its effects are strongly related to OT symptoms.

The Effect of a Competitive Wrestling Season on Salivary Cortisol and Recovery-Stress Scores

Strenuous exercise training and competition without adequate rest and recovery may lead to decreases in performance and symptoms of overtraining. Alterations in cortisol concentrations and recovery-stress scores have been suggested as possible physiological and psychological predictors of overtraining. PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to observe the influence of a competitive collegiate wrestling season on salivary cortisol concentration and Recovery-Stress for Athletics (RESTQ-Sport) scores and their association. METHODS: Salivary cortisol and RESTQ-Sport scores were collected during a competitive season from ten NCAA Division II varsity wrestlers. Once per week for 12 weeks subjects provided timed, un-stimulated saliva samples and completed the RESTQ-Sport before practice. Subjects were instructed on the proper technique for answering the questionnaire at each collection time point. Saliva samples were placed on ice until centrifugation and then stored at −20°C until analysis. RESULTS: Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant difference in mean salivary cortisol (F (11, 99 = 16.127; p < 0.01) over the season, with the highest concentration at time point one and declining over subsequent time points. Significant differences were observed in mean scores of general stress (F (11, 99 = 2.763; p < 0.01), general recovery (F (11, 99 = 5.628; p < 0.01), sport specific stress (F (11, 99 =2.174; p < 0.05), and sport specific recovery (F (11, 99 = 1.931; p < 0.05) over the season. The recovery-stress scores did not follow a specific pattern varying throughout the season. In addition, non-significant correlation coefficients were calculated between salivary cortisol concentration and general stress (r = 0.248, p = 0.490), general recovery (r = 0.159, p = 0.661), sport specific stress (r=0.153, p = 0.673), and sport specific recovery (r=−0.119, p = 0.744). CONCLUSION: These data indicate that a competitive collegiate wrestling season significantly influences salivary cortisol concentration along with RESTQ scores; however, it appears these changes are independent and unrelated.

Motivation, overtraining, and burnout: Can self-determined motivation predict overtraining and burnout in elite athletes?

The aim of this study was to determine whether quality of self-determined motivation at the start of the competitive season in elite athletes and symptoms of overtraining can predict athlete burnout propensity at the end of the season. The participants were 141 elite winter sport athletes. In September, at the beginning of the season, the athletes responded to a self-determined motivation questionnaire, while they answered questions assessing overtraining symptoms and burnout in March, at the end of the season. Findings indicated that self-determined motivation and symptoms of overtraining were negatively and positively linked respectively to dimensions of athlete burnout. The results suggest that self-determined motivation and symptoms of overtraining are both independently linked to signs of burnout in elite athletes and that although no moderating effect was found, pairing self-determined motivation with symptoms of overtraining increased the prediction of burnout in athletes at the end of the season. Our findings are in line with those of recent research (Cresswell & Eklund, 2005; Lemyre, Treasure, & Roberts, 2006) and support a motivational approach to study burnout in elite athletes.

Australian Army Recruits in Training Display Symptoms of Overtraining

The proposition that the demands of recruit training, including physical and psychological stresses, result in symptoms of overtraining was investigated during the 45-day Army Common Recruit Training course. Body mass, physical fitness, fasting blood measures of immune status, hormones (serum free testosterone/cortisol ratio), inflammation, and iron status were measured at baseline and after weeks 5 and 6. Psychological measures of mood and fatigue and general health were measured at the end of each week. Sleep diaries were completed each evening and morning. Evidence for overtraining symptoms of fatigue, sleep disturbance, immune suppression, reduced iron status, high rates of minor injuries, and hormonal changes was found. However, recruits were not pushed so hard that physical performance deteriorated greatly. Accumulated sleep deprivation might be a major contributor to the adverse hormonal changes. We conclude that there was some evidence of recruits being overtrained.