Overt Response Research Articles

Epidemiological and Clinical Observations of Gonococcal Infections in Women and Prevention Strategies.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae is rapidly developing antimicrobial resistance. There is an urgent need for an effective gonococcal vaccine. In this study we examined epidemiological and clinical factors associated with gonorrhea in a cohort of women exposed to men with gonococcal urethritis attending the National Center for STD Control clinic in Nanjing, China, to understand the natural history and the risk factors for gonorrhea in this vulnerable population. This analysis will help identify the best target populations for vaccination, which is essential information for the development of vaccine strategies. We observed that 75% of the women in our cohort yielded a N. gonorrhoeae positive culture (infected women) and reported multiple sexual exposures to their infected partner. Infected women were younger than exposed but uninfected women. Contrary to the general belief that gonorrhea is asymptomatic in most women, 68% of the infected women acknowledged symptoms during their STD clinic visit, and overt inflammatory responses were detected upon medical examination in 88% of subjects. Other sexually transmitted infections were detected in 85% of subjects. This study confirmed that N. gonorrhoeae infections are underdiagnosed in women and, consequentially, untreated. Thus, our analysis reinforces the need to establish strategies for gonococcal prevention through the determination of the target population for a gonococcal vaccine.

A Delphi study to determine expert consensus on the behavioural indicators of stress in horses undergoing veterinary care

Horses undergoing veterinary care may perceive the experience to be stressful and their behavioural responses can result in injuries to people involved in their care. Being able to accurately measure the stress response in horses undergoing veterinary care would have potential benefits. Firstly, it may highlight common behavioural indicators that the horse is stressed, which could be used as warning signs that the risk of an aversive reaction is more likely. Secondly, it would inform the development of low stress handling techniques for veterinary procedures. To determine if there was expert consensus on the most appropriate measures to identify stress in horses undergoing veterinary care a two round Delphi analysis was undertaken; involving experts in the fields of equitation science (n = 16), equine veterinarians (n = 10), and animal and behaviour welfare scientists who do not normally work with horses (n = 7). Each round was completed as an online anonymous survey. In the first round (R1) participants viewed 11 scenarios of horses undergoing veterinary care and were asked to assign the degree of stress they perceived the horses were experiencing on a numerical rating scale (from 1 to 10) and describe any behavioural indicators of stress (BI). In the second round (R2) they were asked to rate the usefulness of a list of BI that had been compiled from results in R1. Analysis of participants’ responses and merging of similar terms identified 41 BI in R1. There was poor agreement between participants (kappa = 0.08) on the degree of stress they perceived the horse was experiencing in each scenario (R1), with a wide range of scores used for most scenarios. In R2 participants reached agreement that 34/41 (83 %) BI were useful indicators of stress. BI considered indicative of severe acute stress were most likely to be identified as very useful in assessing horse stress. The results highlighted a variation in the ability of experts to identify when horses were stressed in the veterinary clinic, particularly when horses were not showing very overt behavioural responses. Although a number of BI were identified as useful, it is likely that development of a structured ethogram and training would be required to allow assessment of BIs to be used successfully in the veterinary clinic to reduce the likelihood of human injuries.

Squamous cell carcinoma superimposed on mucosal leishmaniasis in an HIV-positive patient

Leishmaniasis is emerging as an important problem in immunosuppressed individuals, leading to overt clinical disease, atypical presentation, chronic course, and impaired treatment response. Moreover, it can affect unexposed regions and strikingly mimic other infectious disorders and a variety of neoplastic diseases, thus being easily misdiagnosed. Here, we report the case of an HIV-patient where both clinical picture and histopathological findings were consistent with mucosal leishmaniasis (ML). However, the worsening of the clinical picture after anti-leishmania treatment led to suspect a different diagnosis, and squamous cell carcinoma superimposed on ML and Human Papilloma Virus infection was ultimately diagnosed.

Role and educational implications of cognitive surgical skills

Surgical skills have traditionally been classified as technical and non-technical skills. Technical skills—also called psychomotor skills—constitute a core component of surgical skills. They have been the focus of surgical skill...

Behavioral psychology's matching law describes the allocation of covert attention: A choice rule for the mind.

The matching law describes the allocation of behavior over a wide range of settings, including laboratory experimental chambers, forest foraging patches, sports arenas, and board games. Interestingly, matching persists in settings in which economic analyses predict quite different distributions of behavior, and it also differs systematically from probability matching. We tested whether the matching law also describes the allocation of covert cognitive processes. Sixty-four participants viewed 2, small, vertically arranged adjacent stimuli that projected an image that fit within the fovea. A trial version of the reward contingencies used in matching law experiments determined which stimulus was the target. For example, in 1 condition, the top stimulus was the target 3 times more frequently than the bottom stimulus. However, the amount of time the stimuli were available was tailored to each participant so that they were not able to make use of the information in both stimuli even though an eye-tracking experiment confirmed that they saw both. The implication of this restriction is that participants had to decide which stimulus to attend to prior to each trial. The only available objective basis for this decision was the relative frequencies that a stimulus was the target. The matching law predicted the correlation between the relative frequency that a stimulus was the target and the proportion of trials that it was attended to. The results support the claim that the matching law is a general choice principle-one that describes the allocation of covert mental processes as well as overt behavioral responses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Synthetic promoters to induce immune-effectors into the tumor microenvironment

Harnessing the immune-system to eradicate cancer is becoming a reality in recent years. Engineered immune cells, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, are facing the danger of an overt life-threatening immune response due to the ON-target OFF-tumor cytotoxicity and Cytokine Release Syndrome. We therefore developed synthetic promoters for regulation of gene expression under the control of inflammation and Hypoxia-induced signals that are associated with the tumor microenvironment (TME). We termed this methodology as chimeric-antigen-receptor-tumor-induced-vector (CARTIV). For proof of concept, we studied synthetic promoters based on promoter-responsive elements (PREs) of IFNγ, TNFα and hypoxia; triple PRE-based CARTIV promoter manifested a synergistic activity in cell-lines and potent activation in human primary T-cells. CARTIV platform can improve safety of CAR T-cells or other engineered immune-cells, providing TME-focused activity and opening a therapeutic window for many tumor-associated antigens that are also expressed by non-tumor healthy tissues.

Developmental Hazard of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals and Protective Effect of TEMPOL in Zebrafish Model.

Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) can be detected in ambient PM2.5, cigarette smoke, and soils and are formed through combustion and thermal processing of organic materials. The hazards of EPFRs are largely unknown. In this study, we assess the developmental toxicity of EPFRs and the ability of TEMPOL (4-Hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl) to protect against such hazards using zebrafish embryos. Particles containing EPFRs were acquired by dosing dichlorobenzene (DCB) vapor on the Cab-o-sil/5% CuO particles at 230 °C in vacuo (referred to as DCB-230). The particles were suspended in ultrapure water to make 1 mg/mL of stock solution from which series dilution was undertaken to obtain 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, and 100 µg/mL final test solutions, which were then placed in individual wells with a 4 h postfertilization (hpf) zebrafish embryo. Plates were run in duplicate to obtain a sample size of 24 animals per concentration; 12 embryos were exposed per concentration per plate. Statistical analysis of the morphology endpoints was performed. We investigated overt toxicity responses to DCB-230 in a 22-endpoint battery that included developing zebrafish from 24–120 hpf. Exposure to concentrations greater than 60 µg/mL of DCB-230 induced high mortality in the developmental zebrafish model. Exposure to EPFRs induced developmental hazards that were closely related to the concentrations of free radicals and EPFRs. The potential protective effects of TEMPOL against EPFRs’ toxicity in zebrafish were investigated. Exposure to EPFRs plus TEMPOL shifted the concentration to an induced 50% adverse effect (EC50), from 23.6 to 30.8 µg/mL, which verifies TEMPOL’s protective effect against EPFRs in the early phase of zebrafish development.

Multicomponent Theories of Hypnotizability: History and Prospects

ABSTRACT This review addresses multicomponent theories of hypnotizability by focusing on 3 important exemplars from the history of hypnosis research: E. R. Hilgard’s (1965) Hypnotic susceptibility; R. E. Shor’s (1962) Three dimensions of hypnotic depth; and T.X. Barber’s (1999) A comprehensive three-dimensional theory of hypnosis. Taken together, they illustrate the variety of hypnotic phenomena examined in research – overt responses, subjective experiences, and underlying processes – and the ways in which evidence about each has implied the existence of multiple underlying components. Particularly highlighted are the different ways in which the theories conceptualize the joint contribution of multiple individual differences. Also covered is relevant later work by other researchers as well as important issues remaining to be resolved.

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Secondary to Varicella Zoster with Acute Liver Failure

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an aggressive and life threatening syndrome of excessive immune activation. This condition can be inherited or secondary to other diseases. The therapeutic success is directly related to the rapid diagnosis with the patient who has high clinical suspicious index such as febrile illness with cytopenia, liver enzyme derangement, raised serum ferritin and low fibrinogen levels. Infection is a common trigger both in those with a genetic predisposition and in sporadic cases. We report a 31 years old man who presented with diagnosis of severe varicella zoster infection with multiorgan involvement. The laboratory data showed thrombocytopenia, an elevated level of the liver transaminases and coagulopathy. Antiviral therapy along with supportive treatment initiated. However the general condition deteriorated and he eventually required mechanical ventilation with intensive care unit support. He had persistent high spiking temperature, acute liver failure and raised serum ferritin. With the history of steroid contained health supplements ingestion prior to current hospitalization leading to immunosuppressed state, HLH was diagnosed and treatment was directed towards suppressing the overt immune response. Dexamethasone is chosen here because it can cross the blood brain barrier and tapered over the eight week induction. He responded well to treatment and discharged home.

Functional connectivity of spoken language processing in early-stage Parkinson’s disease: An MEG study

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, well-known for its motor symptoms; however, it also adversely affects cognitive functions, including language, a highly important human ability. PD pathology is associated, even in the early stage of the disease, with alterations in the functional connectivity within cortico-subcortical circuitry of the basal ganglia as well as within cortical networks. Here, we investigated functional cortical connectivity related to spoken language processing in early-stage PD patients. We employed a patient-friendly passive attention-free paradigm to probe neurophysiological correlates of language processing in PD patients without confounds related to active attention and overt motor responses. MEG data were recorded from a group of newly diagnosed PD patients and age-matched healthy controls who were passively presented with spoken word stimuli (action and abstract verbs, as well as grammatically correct and incorrect inflectional forms) while focussing on watching a silent movie. For each of the examined linguistic aspects, a logistic regression classifier was used to classify participants as either PD patients or healthy controls based on functional connectivity within the temporo-fronto-parietal cortical language networks. Classification was successful for action verbs (accuracy = 0.781, p-value = 0.003) and, with lower accuracy, for abstract verbs (accuracy = 0.688, p-value = 0.041) and incorrectly inflected forms (accuracy = 0.648, p-value = 0.021), but not for correctly inflected forms (accuracy = 0.523, p-value = 0.384). Our findings point to quantifiable differences in functional connectivity within the cortical systems underpinning language processing in newly diagnosed PD patients compared to healthy controls, which arise early, in the absence of clinical evidence of deficits in cognitive or general language functions. The techniques presented here may aid future work on establishing neurolinguistic markers to objectively and noninvasively identify functional changes in the brain’s language networks even before clinical symptoms emerge.

Pheromonal communication in urodelan amphibians.

Pheromonal communication is an ancient and pervasive sensory modality in urodelan amphibians. One family of salamander pheromones (the sodefrin precursor-like factor (SPF) family) originated 300 million years ago, at the origin of amphibians. Although salamanders are often thought of as relatively simple animals especially when compared to mammals, the pheromonal systems are varied and complex with nuanced effects on behavior. Here, we review the function and evolution of pheromonal signals involved in male-female reproductive interactions. After describing common themes of salamander pheromonal communication, we describe what is known about the rich diversity of pheromonal communication in each salamander family. Several pheromones have been described, ranging from simple, invariant molecules to complex, variable blends of pheromones. While some pheromones elicit overt behavioral responses, others have more nuanced effects. Pheromonal signals have diversified within salamander lineages and have experienced rapid evolution. Once receptors have been matched to pheromonal ligands, rapid advance can be made to better understand the olfactory detection and processing of salamander pheromones. In particular, a large number of salamander species deliver pheromones across the skin of females, perhaps reflecting a novel mode of pheromonal communication. At the end of our review, we list some of the many intriguing unanswered questions. We hope that this review will inspire a new generation of scientists to pursue work in this rewarding field.

Behavioral Treatment of Problem Behavior for an Adult with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Misophonia

Misophonia is characterized by an autonomic response (e.g., increased heart rate) that is elicited by certain innocuous or repetitive sounds, and individuals with misophonia may display an extreme, overt response commonly associated with rage, hatred, and a loss of self-control. In this investigation, we used a combined respondent and operant approach to treat problem behavior evoked by bodily sounds (i.e., coughing, sneezing, sniffling, and clearing throat) for an adult with autism spectrum disorder. The intervention produced immediate reductions of problem behavior and the effects of treatment maintained during progressively lean schedules of reinforcement. The results of this study will be discussed in light of past research, along with limitations, and future directions for research and clinical practice.

Task-Irrelevant Visual Forms Facilitate Covert and Overt Spatial Selection.

Covert and overt spatial selection behaviors are guided by both visual saliency maps derived from early visual features as well as priority maps reflecting high-level cognitive factors. However, whether mid-level perceptual processes associated with visual form recognition contribute to covert and overt spatial selection behaviors remains unclear. We hypothesized that if peripheral visual forms contribute to spatial selection behaviors, then they should do so even when the visual forms are task-irrelevant. We tested this hypothesis in male and female human subjects as well as in male macaque monkeys performing a visual detection task. In this task, subjects reported the detection of a suprathreshold target spot presented on top of one of two peripheral images, and they did so with either a speeded manual button press (humans) or a speeded saccadic eye movement response (humans and monkeys). Crucially, the two images, one with a visual form and the other with a partially phase-scrambled visual form, were completely irrelevant to the task. In both manual (covert) and oculomotor (overt) response modalities, and in both humans and monkeys, response times were faster when the target was congruent with a visual form than when it was incongruent. Importantly, incongruent targets were associated with almost all errors, suggesting that forms automatically captured selection behaviors. These findings demonstrate that mid-level perceptual processes associated with visual form recognition contribute to covert and overt spatial selection. This indicates that neural circuits associated with target selection, such as the superior colliculus, may have privileged access to visual form information.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Spatial selection of visual information either with (overt) or without (covert) foveating eye movements is critical to primate behavior. However, it is still not clear whether spatial maps in sensorimotor regions known to guide overt and covert spatial selection are influenced by peripheral visual forms. We probed the ability of humans and monkeys to perform overt and covert target selection in the presence of spatially congruent or incongruent visual forms. Even when completely task-irrelevant, images of visual objects had a dramatic effect on target selection, acting much like spatial cues used in spatial attention tasks. Our results demonstrate that traditional brain circuits for orienting behaviors, such as the superior colliculus, likely have privileged access to visual object representations.

Mediterranean diet, stress resilience, and aging in nonhuman primates

Persistent psychological stress increases the risk of many chronic diseases of aging. Little progress has been made to effectively reduce stress responses or mitigate stress effects suggesting a need for better understanding of factors that influence stress responses. Limited evidence suggests that diet may be a factor in modifying the effects of stress. However, long-term studies of diet effects on stress reactive systems are not available, and controlled randomized clinical trials are difficult and costly. Here we report the outcomes of a controlled, randomized preclinical trial of the effects of long-term consumption (31 months, ~ equivalent to 9 human years) of Western versus Mediterranean - like diets on behavioral and physiological responses to acute (brief social separation) and chronic (social subordination) psychosocial stress in 38 adult, socially-housed, female cynomolgus macaques. Compared to animals fed a Western diet, those fed the Mediterranean diet exhibited enhanced stress resilience as indicated by lower sympathetic activity, brisker and more overt heart rate responses to acute stress, more rapid recovery, and lower cortisol responses to acute psychological stress and adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) challenge. Furthermore, age-related increases in sympathetic activity and cortisol responses to stress were delayed by the Mediterranean diet. Population level diet modification in humans has been shown to be feasible. Our findings suggest that population-wide adoption of a Mediterranean-like diet pattern may provide a cost-effective intervention on psychological stress and promote healthy aging with the potential for widespread efficacy.

Auditory and Somatosensory P3 Are Complementary for the Assessment of Patients with Disorders of Consciousness.

The evaluation of the level of consciousness in patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) is primarily based on behavioural assessments. Patients with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) do not show any sign of awareness of their environment, while minimally conscious state (MCS) patients show reproducible but fluctuating signs of awareness. Some patients, although with remaining cognitive abilities, are not able to exhibit overt voluntary responses at the bedside and may be misdiagnosed as UWS. Several studies investigated functional neuroimaging and neurophysiology as an additional tool to evaluate the level of consciousness and to detect covert command following in DOC. Most of these studies are based on auditory stimulation, neglecting patients suffering from decreased or absent hearing abilities. In the present study, we aim to assess the response to a P3-based paradigm in 40 patients with DOC and 12 healthy participants using auditory (AEP) and vibrotactile (VTP) stimulation. To this end, an EEG-based brain-computer interface was used at DOC patient’s bedside. We compared the significance of the P3 performance (i.e., the interpretation of significance of the evoked P3 response) as obtained by ‘direct processing’ (i.e., theoretical-based significance threshold) and ‘offline processing’ (i.e., permutation-based single subject level threshold). We evaluated whether the P3 performances were dependent on clinical variables such as diagnosis (UWS and MCS), aetiology and time since injury. Last we tested the dependency of AEP and VTP performances at the single subject level. Direct processing tends to overestimate P3 performance. We did not find any difference in the presence of a P3 performance according to the level of consciousness (UWS vs. MCS) or the aetiology (traumatic vs. non-traumatic brain injury). The performance achieved at the AEP paradigm was independent from what was achieved at the VTP paradigm, indicating that some patients performed better on the AEP task while others performed better on the VTP task. Our results support the importance of using multimodal approaches in the assessment of DOC patients in order to optimise the evaluation of patient’s abilities.

Note on Birnbaum and Wan (2020): True and error model analysis is robust with respect to certain violations of the MARTER model

AbstractThe Markov True and Error (MARTER) model (Birnbaum & Wan, 2020) has three components: a risky decision making model with one or more parameters, a Markov model that describes stochastic variation of parameters over time, and a true and error (TE) model that describes probabilistic relations between true preferences and overt responses. In this study, we simulated data according to 57 generating models that either did or did not satisfy the assumptions of the True and Error fitting model, that either did or did not satisfy the error independence assumptions, that either did or did not satisfy transitivity, and that had various patterns of error rates. A key assumption in the TE fitting model is that a person’s true preferences do not change in the short time within a session; that is, preference reversals between two responses by the same person to two presentations of the same choice problem in the same brief session are due to random error. In a set of 48 simulations, data generating models either satisfied this assumption or they implemented a systematic violation, in which true preferences could change within sessions. We used the true and error (TE) fitting model to analyze the simulated data, and we found that it did a good job of distinguishing transitive from intransitive models and in estimating parameters not only when the generating model satisfied the model assumptions, but also when model assumptions were violated in this way. When the generating model violated the assumptions, statistical tests of the TE fitting models correctly detected the violations. Even when the data contained violations of the TE model, the parameter estimates representing probabilities of true preference patterns were surprisingly accurate, except for error rates, which were inflated by model violations. In a second set of simulations, the generating model either had error rates that were or were not independent of true preferences and transitivity either was or was not satisfied. It was found again that the TE analysis was able to detect the violations of the fitting model, and the analysis correctly identified whether the data had been generated by a transitive or intransitive process; however, in this case, estimated incidence of a preference pattern was reduced if that preference pattern had a higher error rate. Overall, the violations could be detected and did not affect the ability of the TE analysis to discriminate between transitive and intransitive processes.

Polyanhydride Nanoparticles Induce Low Inflammatory Dendritic Cell Activation Resulting in CD8+ T Cell Memory and Delayed Tumor Progression.

IntroductionAdjuvants and immunotherapies designed to activate adaptive immunity to eliminate infectious disease and tumors have become an area of interest aimed at providing a safe and effective strategy to prevent or eliminate disease. Existing approaches would benefit from the development of immunization regimens capable of inducing efficacious cell-mediated immunity directed toward CD8+ T cell-specific antigens. This goal is critically dependent upon appropriate activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) most notably dendritic cells (DCs). In this regard, polyanhydride particles have been shown to be effectively internalized by APCs and induce activation.MethodsHere, a prophylactic vaccine regimen designed as a single-dose polyanhydride nanovaccine encapsulating antigen is evaluated for the induction of CD8+ T cell memory in a model system where antigen-specific protection is restricted to CD8+ T cells. Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) are used as an in vitro model system to evaluate the magnitude and phenotype of APC activation. Primary DCs, particularly those with described ability to activate CD8+ T cells, are also evaluated for their in vitro responses to polyanhydride nanoparticles.ResultsHerein, polyanhydride nanoparticles are shown to induce potent in vitro upregulation of costimulatory molecules on the cell surface of BMDCs. In contrast to the classically used TLR agonists, nanoparticles did not induce large amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines, did not induce characteristic metabolic response of DCs, nor produce innate antimicrobial effector molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO). The polyanhydride nanovaccine results in protective CD8+ T cell responses as measured by inhibition of tumor progression and survival.DiscussionTogether, these results suggest that the use of a polyanhydride-based nanovaccine can be an effective approach to inducing antigen-specific CD8+ T cell memory by providing antigen delivery and DC activation while avoiding overt inflammatory responses typically associated with traditional adjuvants.

The P300 as marker of inhibitory control – Fact or fiction?

Inhibitory control, i.e., the ability to stop or suppress actions, thoughts, or memories, represents a prevalent and popular concept in basic and clinical neuroscience as well as psychology. At the same time, it is notoriously difficult to study as successful inhibition is characterized by the absence of a continuously quantifiable direct behavioral marker. It has been suggested that the P3 latency, and here especially its onset latency, may serve as neurophysiological marker of inhibitory control as it correlates with the stop signal reaction time (SSRT). The SSRT estimates the average stopping latency, which itself is unobservable since no overt response is elicited in successful stop trials, based on differences in the distribution of go reaction times and the delay of the stop-relative to the go-signal in stop trials.In a meta-analysis and an independent electroencephalography (EEG) experiment, we found that correlations between the P3 latency and the SSRT are indeed replicable, but also unspecific. Not only does the SSRT also correlate with the N2 latency, but both P3 and N2 latency measures show similar or even higher correlations with other behavioral parameters such as the go reaction time or stopping accuracy. The missing specificity of P3–SSRT correlations, together with the general pattern of associations, suggests that these manifest effects are driven by underlying latent processes other than inhibition, such as behavioral adaptations in context of performance monitoring operations.

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACEIs) Decrease the Progression of Cardiac Fibrosis in Rheumatic Heart Disease Through the Inhibition of IL-33/sST2.

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is common in developing countries and poses a big medical challenge and burden. The pathogenesis of RHD is influenced by the triad of host, agent, and environment. Autoantigens generated from Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection are captured by the resident dendritic cells (DCs) in the heart's valvular endothelium. DCs differentiate into antigen presenting cells (APC) in the valve interstices. APC induces activation of autoreactive T cells, which triggers inflammation and tissue fibrosis. Cardiac fibrosis is promoted through the activation of Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and its downstream signaling, including its interaction with transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and Smad proteins. TGF-β-induced phosphorylation of Smad2 complexes with Smad3 and Smad4, and translocates into the nucleus. Angiotensin II enhances the migration, maturation, and presentation of DC. In RHD, Angiotensin II induces fibrosis via the stimulation of TGF-β, which further increases the binding of IL-33 to sST2 but not ST2L, resulting in the upregulation of Angiotensin II and progression of cardiac fibrosis. This cascade of inflammation and valvular fibrosis causes calcification and stiffening of the heart valves in RHD. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) inhibit Angiotensin II production, which in turn decreases TGF-β expression and the onset of overt inflammatory response. This condition leads to a reduction in the sST2 as the decoy receptor to “steal” IL-33, and IL-33 binds to ST2L and results in cardioprotection against cardiac fibrosis in the pathogenesis of RHD.

A perceptual scaling approach to eyewitness identification

Eyewitness misidentification accounts for 70% of verified erroneous convictions. To address this alarming phenomenon, research has focused on factors that influence likelihood of correct identification, such as the manner in which a lineup is conducted. Traditional lineups rely on overt eyewitness responses that confound two covert factors: strength of recognition memory and the criterion for deciding what memory strength is sufficient for identification. Here we describe a lineup that permits estimation of memory strength independent of decision criterion. Our procedure employs powerful techniques developed in studies of perception and memory: perceptual scaling and signal detection analysis. Using these tools, we scale memory strengths elicited by lineup faces, and quantify performance of a binary classifier tasked with distinguishing perpetrator from innocent suspect. This approach reveals structure of memory inaccessible using traditional lineups and renders accurate identifications uninfluenced by decision bias. The approach furthermore yields a quantitative index of individual eyewitness performance.