Class Size Reduction Research Articles

OVERLOADING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS: A REVIEW

Teacher workload intensification in basic education is a critical issue impacting both teacher well-being and the quality of education. This literature review employs a systematic review methodology to synthesize findings from existing research on the causes and consequences of excessive workloads among teachers. The review identifies key contributors to workload intensification, including administrative responsibilities, lesson planning, student assessments, extracurricular duties, and broad curriculum requirements within limited timeframes. These factors detract from teachers' core instructional functions and contribute to elevated stress levels, burnout, and attrition. The analysis highlights "time poverty" as a significant barrier, limiting teachers' ability to engage in effective pedagogy and professional development. Additionally, the study reveals that excessive workloads undermine teachers' physical and mental health, leading to reduced motivation and job dissatisfaction. To address these challenges, proposed solutions include reducing class sizes, streamlining curricular requirements, and providing additional support staff. The review underscores the necessity of educational policy reforms that prioritize teacher well-being, support effective teaching practices, and foster sustainable work environments. By alleviating workload pressures, these reforms can enhance teacher retention, professional satisfaction, and ultimately, improve educational outcomes for students. This study contributes to ongoing discussions on optimizing teacher workload to ensure high-quality education systems.

Management of Teaching Space and Time: Evidence from Tertiary Institutions in Ghana

Overcrowding in classrooms is a common issue in tertiary institutions in Ghana. Proper management of teaching space and time is critical for maximising the use of available resources and stressful-free learning environment for students in tertiary institutions. This article aims to provide empirical evidence and practical recommendations for improving the management of teaching space and time in Ghana's tertiary institutions. The study is grounded in utilization theory, and adopted a descriptive survey design. The population for this study consists of 26 general-purpose lecture rooms available at a university in Ghana. Census Sampling was applied to select all the 26 general-purpose lecture rooms. The instruments used for data collection was an observation checklist. Quantitative results from the observation checklist were analysed using teaching space utilization formulas. The study revealed that general-purpose lecture rooms were underutilized in terms of time but were efficiently utilized in terms of space. The study also found that the lecture rooms have high utilization rates on Mondays and low utilization on Fridays. Additionally, morning sessions revealed efficient utilization, while afternoon and evening sessions were underutilized. The study recommends implementation of centralized timetabling and computerization of space allocation. Additionally, the study recommends for provision of a few more large general purpose lecture rooms to accommodate very large class sizes, which can also be partitioned effectively to accommodate small class sizes for efficient utilization of the lecture rooms.

Inequality of educational opportunity among primary school children in Cameroon

Despite several education policies related to the Sustainable Development Goals, educational inequalities persist at the primary school level in Cameroon. However, little is known on students’ circumstances and efforts in an attempt to reduce these inequalities. The aim of this paper therefore is to analyse inequality of opportunity in Cameroon’s primary education sector. Using the 2014 and 2019 PASEC databases, we decompose students’ reading and mathematics test scores based on Shapley and non-parametric approaches to assess the role of household, school and environmental circumstances. Results show that inequality of opportunity contributes between 38.1 % and 46.3 % of total inequality for between 2014 and 2019 in test scores. Interestingly, school factors like school type, location, resources, and class size, have a bigger impact than students’ family background. Policies to improve school conditions should focus on rural and under-resourced areas in terms of educational materials, while improving school inspections and reducing class sizes may be more effective in reducing educational inequalities.

Community health promotion and medical provision and impact on neonates (CHAMPION2) and support to rural India’s public education system and impact on numeracy and literacy scores (STRIPES2): an update to the study protocol (v 11) for a cluster randomised trial in Madhya Pradesh, India

BackgroundThis update outlines amendments to the CHAMPION2/STRIPES2 cluster randomised trial protocol primarily made due to the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown in India in 2020. These amendments were in line with national guidelines for health research during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsWe did not change the original trial design, eligibility, and outcomes. Amendments were introduced to minimise the risk of COVID-19 transmission and ensure safety and wellbeing of trial staff, participants, and other villagers. CHAMPION2 intervention: participatory learning and action (PLA) and fixed day service (FDS) meeting were revised to incorporate social distancing and hygiene precautions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, PLA participation was limited to pregnant women and birthing partners. STRIPES2 intervention: before/after-school classes were halted for a period and then modified temporarily (reducing class sizes, and/or changing meeting places) with hygiene and safe distancing practices introduced. Data collection: The research team gathered as much information as possible from participants by telephone. If the participant had no telephone or could not be contacted by telephone, data were collected in person. COVID-19 precautions: trial teams were trained on COVID-19 precautions and used personal protective equipment whilst in the villages for trial-related activities.After restarting the trial between June and September 2020 in a phased manner, some trial activities were suspended again in all the trial villages from April to June 2021 due to the second wave of COVID-19 cases and lockdown imposed in Satna, Madhya Pradesh. Trial timelines were also revised, with outcomes measured later than originally planned.Trial registrationClinical Trial Registry of India CTRI/2019/05/019296. Registered 23 May 2019.https://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?EncHid=MzExOTg=&Enc=&userName=champion2.

An Examination of the Factors contributing to Learner Dropout at Grade Six Level in Manzini Region Primary Schools

Learner dropout remains a challenge in Eswatini despite the introduction of free primary education by the government. The study established the factors that contribute to learner dropout at the grade six level in the Manzini region. An interpretivist research philosophy and a qualitative research approach were adopted to collect the study’s data. A case study design made it possible to collect detailed data from purposively selected participants in three public primary schools. Interviews were held with two head teachers while nine grade six teachers took part in focus group discussions. Findings revealed that school-related factors like overcrowded classrooms, poor performance and non-availability of practical subjects that aligned with learners’ interests and abilities contributed to learner dropout. Findings further revealed that poverty, child labour, peer pressure, teenage pregnancy, lack of parental involvement, and initiation into cultural practices and activities contributed to learner dropout. The study recommended that the government should build more schools and classrooms and hire more qualified teachers to reduce overcrowding in classrooms and the distance walked by learners to school. The government should also support needy learners from disadvantaged backgrounds with basic necessities such as sanitary pads for girls. The Ministry of Education should introduce practical subjects like Carpentry, Art, Music and Dance to cater for the interests and abilities of different learners. Schools should promote parental involvement and core curricula activities to engage, motivate and retain learners. The study contributes to the body of knowledge by suggesting strategies that can mitigate learner dropout which is a widespread challenge in the SADC region and other African countries. Keywords: Factors, Learner, Dropout, Manzini, Primary Schools

Improving the Learning Experience of Chinese Masters’ students in UK higher education

ABSTRACT Both challenges and opportunities are inherent with a growth in Chinese international students in UK Higher Education. However, teachers from the West may not understand the differences in Chinese educational practices, which can lead to negative stereotyping of these students as passive and problematic. This paper rejects this deficit perspective, focusing on the views of Chinese students as to what might need to change about the UK teaching and campus environment to improve their learning experience. Two focus groups were held with Chinese social science Masters’ students in a UK university. Some of their key requests included to reduce class sizes; to provide more guidance around study skills; to offer more timely and accessible information; to provide a more flexible range of services and learning support; and to create more social time with staff and other students. The discussions particularly brought out the importance of ‘relational pedagogy’. These requirements will need more staff time and institutional flexibility which will necessitate adequate funding. The authors conclude that, despite Chinese students’ significant contribution to the local economy and to University finances, there does not seem to be a commensurate investment in protecting their wellbeing and ensuring they receive a quality education. We consider it is important to listen to and act on the students’ suggestions outlined here if UK Higher Education is to remain the destination of choice for many Chinese and other international students.

Causes of Deterioration of Elementary Education and Potential Solutions

This research study aimed to find out the causes of the deterioration of elementary education and potential solutions perceived by teachers. The major objective of this study was to examine the causes of deterioration in elementary education and potential solutions perceived by teachers. All male and female elementary teachers in both public and private schools in the district Muzaffargarh were the population. The sample consisted of 274 school teachers (150 male and 124 female), who were selected through a stratified sampling technique. For data collection, a 40-item self-structured questionnaire was designed for teachers. Findings showed that causes of deterioration of Elementary education as perceived by teachers include insufficient resources, inadequate funding, large class sizes, lack of teacher training, outdated curriculum, and lack of parental involvement. The solutions included increased funding for education, reducing class sizes, providing opportunities for professional development for teachers, updating the curriculum to be more relevant and engaging, improving access to resources and technology, parental involvement, and fostering stronger collaboration between teachers, parents, and administration.

The Making of Social Democracy: the Economic and Electoral Consequences of Norway’s 1936 Folk School Reform

Abstract Upon assuming power for the first time in 1935, the Norwegian Labour Party delivered on its promise for a major schooling reform. The reform raised minimum instruction time in less-developed rural areas and boosted the resources available to rural schools, reducing class size, and raising teacher salaries. We show that cohorts more intensively affected by the reform increased their education and experienced higher labor income. Our main result is that the schooling reform also boosted support for the Norwegian Labour Party in subsequent elections. This additional support persisted for several decades and was pivotal in maintaining support for the social democratic coalition in Norway. These results are not driven by the direct impact of education and are not explained by higher turnout, or greater attention or resources from the Labour Party targeted toward the municipalities most affected by the reform. Rather, our evidence suggests that cohorts that benefited from the schooling reform, and their parents, rewarded the party for delivering a major reform that was beneficial to them.

Slogans as a policy distractor: a case of ‘washback’ discourse in English language testing reforms in Japan

ABSTRACT This paper examines recent reforms in English-language testing in Japan using a policy distraction framework. We identify the term ‘washback (effect)’ and other related discourses as major distractors and investigate how ‘washback’ discourses have functioned as political slogans or catchphrases in policy deliberation processes and how they have diverted attention and resources from more essential issues. By analyzing advisory panel minutes and other policy documents, we demonstrate how policy distraction operates. Some committee members initially introduced ‘washback’ discourse in a deliberation meeting, citing studies on language testing. However, this discourse quickly became a political slogan, transforming into a dubious rationale for advocating the use of commercial four-skills English tests in university entrance exams. This ‘washback’ discourse led to policy distraction and the overlooking of more significant issues, such as class size reduction and the improvement of teachers’ working conditions. Additionally, our analysis reveals underlying factors triggering this distraction, including Japanese ideological views on English education and budgetary austerity in education. We discuss the political and pedagogical implications of these findings, particularly regarding the identification of political distractions, their potential threat to teacher agency, and strategies for addressing and correcting these distractions to facilitate social change.

Distributed Active Learning (DAL): An Approach to Reduce Class Size in Large Enrollment Courses

Distributed Active Learning (DAL): An Approach to Reduce Class Size in Large Enrollment Courses

Vietnamese EFL high school teachers' perceptions of difficulties when implementing competency-based English teaching curriculum and their proposed solutions

This study aims to examine the perceptions of Vietnamese English as a foreign language (EFL) high school teachers regarding the implementation of the competency-based English teaching curriculum (CETC) in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. Utilizing a qualitative approach, this study sought to delve into the challenges high school EFL teachers faced while implementing the CETC in Vietnam. Semi-structured interviews with 10 teachers were conducted to gain insights into their experiences, specifically targeting their perceptions of difficulties and their suggestions for potential solutions derived from these experiences. The findings reveal teachers' perceptions of their perceived difficulties related to student-related factors (low English proficiency, and limited self-directed learning abilities), teacher-related factors (traditional teaching methods, inadequate language and pedagogical skills, and insufficient training), and institution-related factors (large class sizes, limited teaching time, and inadequate facilities). In addition, the teachers recommended strategic solutions for a better implementation of the CETC including providing constructive feedback, promoting collaborative learning, enhancing teachers’ language and pedagogical proficiency, reducing class sizes, and improving facilities. Accordingly, the study contributes to the understanding of CETC implementation and provides practical implications for teachers, students, and policymakers in Vietnam and other similar contexts.

Addressing Pedagogical Challenges Faced by English Lecturers at Halabja University, Kurdistan: A Qualitative Study

This study addresses the challenges faced by English lecturers at the College of Basic Education at Halabja University, Kurdistan, aiming to contribute insights that can inform improved regulations and enhance English Language Teaching (ELT) at the university. The data collected via semi-structured interviews was subjected to thematic analysis, and five English lecturers participated. The results of this study focus on the obstacles encountered by English instructors, exploring themes such as student motivation, language competence, class size, time constraints, and inadequate facilities. The study underscores the need for targeted interventions to address these challenges and improve the overall quality of ELT. Based on the findings, specific recommendations include implementing motivational strategies in the classroom, providing additional language support resources for students, reducing class sizes where possible, allowing more preparation time for lecturers, and upgrading classroom facilities and teaching materials. The findings highlight English lecturers' intricate issues, emphasize the necessity for institutional and governmental support to facilitate a more conducive teaching and learning environment, and reveal significant challenges, including students' lack of motivation, linguistic proficiency issues, difficulties managing large classes, time constraints, and insufficient teaching resources

Class size reduction, bullying, and violent behavior: Evidence from West Bank schools

AbstractClass size is one of the predominant topics in educational policy debate, as its impact on academic performance has not always yielded consistent findings. Nevertheless, less emphasis was paid to noncognitive outcomes such as well‐being and behavioral issues. This study employs rich administrative and survey data to investigate the effects of class size on students’ bullying and violent behavior as well as cognitive abilities tests. The study uses the maximum class size rule to create a regression discontinuity (RD) relation between cohort enrollment size and class size in the public and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency school system in the West Bank. Further, this study provides evidence that there is no violation of the RD assumptions resulting from discontinuities in the relationship between enrollment and students’ household background at cutoff points induced by a maximum class size rule. The findings suggest that class size reduction improves the quality of life for children by mitigating bullying and violent behavior among pupils, which might have long‐term adverse effects on academic attainment. Finally, peer relationships and mental health problems are identified as potential mechanisms through which class size influences self‐reported levels of bullying and violent behavior among students.

The effect of smaller classes on infection-related school absence: evidence from the Project STAR randomized controlled trial

BackgroundIn an effort to reduce viral transmission, many schools reduced class sizes during the recent pandemic. Yet the effect of class size on transmission is unknown.MethodsWe used data from Project STAR, a randomized controlled trial in which 10,816 Tennessee elementary students were assigned at random to smaller classes (13 to 17 students) or larger classes (22 to 26 students) in 1985-89. We merged Project STAR schools with data on local deaths from pneumonia and influenza in the 122 Cities Mortality Report System. Using mixed effects linear, Poisson, and negative binomial regression, we estimated the main effect of smaller classes on absence. We used an interaction to test whether the effect of small classes on absence was larger when and where community pneumonia and influenza prevalence was high.ResultsSmall classes reduced absence by 0.43 days/year (95% CI -0.06 to -0.80, p < 0.05), but small classes had no significant interaction with community pneumonia and influenza mortality (95% CI -0.27 to + 0.30, p > 0.90), indicating that the reduction in absence due to small classes was not larger when community disease prevalence was high.ConclusionSmall classes reduced absence, but the reduction was not larger when disease prevalence was high, so the reduction in absence was not necessarily achieved by reducing infection. Small classes, by themselves, may not suffice to reduce the spread of respiratory viruses.

Teachers Matter More Than Sites and Facilities: Provincial-Level Educational Predictors of Adolescent Life Satisfaction.

Life satisfaction can predict students' school engagement and academic performance, and has shown significant regional differences among adolescents. The predictive effect of economic factors as regional characteristics on adolescent life satisfaction has been extensively examined; however, the regional educational factors that could predict adolescent life satisfaction remain unknown. This study aimed to identify provincial-level educational factors that can predict adolescent life satisfaction. The participants comprised 16,737 students, aged 11-16 years (M age = 13.82; SD age = 0.77; 8767 girls, 7970 boys), from 31 provinces in China. Students completed measures on socioeconomic status and life satisfaction. Multilevel modeling was adopted in data analysis. Adolescent life satisfaction was positively correlated with family socioeconomic status, and negatively associated with age and academic ranking. Life satisfaction was lower for girls than boys. Some regional education development indicators could predict adolescent life satisfaction: ratio of students to teachers, ratio of students to teachers with master's degrees, and multimedia classroom size negatively correlated with adolescent life satisfaction; meanwhile per capita sports field area positively correlated with adolescent life satisfaction. Per capita education expenditure, classroom area, laboratory area, computer room area, language lab area, gymnasium area, green space area, sports field area, computers per student, number of books, and value of equipment and instruments could not significantly predict life satisfaction in this study. The findings suggest that the life satisfaction of female adolescents, those in older age groups, with lower academic rankings and socioeconomic status, and those residing in regions with underdeveloped educational systems was relatively poor. These groups of adolescents should therefore be given special attention. To enhance their life satisfaction, some certain provinces should consider implementing measures such as increasing the number of teachers, reducing class sizes, and providing more opportunities for physical activity among junior middle school students.

Examining How Equity is Promoted and Experienced in the Ghanaian Classroom

This research aimed to investigate how teachers promote equity in the classroom and how students experience equity in the classroom in the Akuapem South Municipality of Ghana. The study adopted Freire’s (1970) concept of critical pedagogy as its theoretical framework and employed a qualitative case study approach with purposive sampling of 8 teachers and 16 third-year students from various classrooms in four schools. Data was collected through interviews and observations and analysed using thematic analysis. Findings revealed equity issues within the study schools, with students facing various forms of inequity. Teachers promoted equity mainly by avoiding foul language in the classroom and creating interactive classroom sessions. Recommendations included equity training for teachers and students, counselling support, creating inclusive classrooms, and reducing class sizes to support a more inclusive environment.

Enhancing a Quality Teaching and Learning Environment in Large Classes in South African Universities: a Theoretical Exposition

The perpetual increase in students’ enrolment in higher education institutions, worldwide, has recently emerged as a key concern for both students, educators, parents, policy makers and educational policy analysts alike. This phenomenon has been borne out of a global trend of massification of higher education as many countries begin to consider the importance of education and skills development in economic growth and social development. On the other hand, it has been triggered by the perceived pattern of commodification of higher education services in which student intake and teaching outputs are intricately linked to the financial sustainability of higher education institutions. In this paper, a critical examination of literature pertaining to Large Class Pedagogy and Learning Theories is undertaken with a view to determine how one could teach and ensure quality learning in large classes within a South African higher education context. Anchored within a critical qualitative frame of analysis, the assessment draws from existing literature on Large Class Pedagogy (LCP), learning theories, teaching approaches and learning styles to provide a conceptual lens in which the challenges associated with large class environments can be mitigated to offer an educational experience of acceptable quality. The paper provides a synthesis of pertinent issues that have arose in the critical examination of LCP and appropriate Learning Theories in a developing country context as that of South Africa. It appears that government funding to higher education institutions should be increased through adoption of large class size reduction policies, equitable allocation of resources to faculties and academic departments by universities, rigorous assessment of staff-student ratios and infrastructure when new academic programs are introduced, monitoring of adherence to approved yearly student enrolment targets in academic programme, adoption of collaborative learning methods by academic staff in which self-directed learning styles in students are encouraged and supported, optimal use of educational technologies through systematic integration of digitization in the learning and teaching environment, enhanced administrative psycho-social support to students and lecturers are some of the macro, mesa and micro level strategies required to enhance quality teaching and learning with increasing class sizes.

Comparing intervention measures in a model of a disease outbreak on a university campus.

A number of theoretical models have been developed in recent years modelling epidemic spread in educational settings such as universities, often as part of efforts to inform re-opening strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, these studies have had differing conclusions as to the most effective non-pharmaceutical interventions. They also largely assumed permanent acquired immunity, meaning we have less understanding of how disease dynamics will play out when immunity wanes. Here, we complement these studies by developing and analysing a general stochastic simulation model of disease spread on a university campus where we allow immunity to wane, exploring the effectiveness of different interventions. We find that the two most effective interventions to limit the severity of a disease outbreak are reducing extra-household mixing and surveillance testing backed-up by a moderate isolation period. We find that contact tracing only has a limited effect, while reducing class sizes only has much effect if extra-household mixing is already low. We identify a range of measures that can not only limit an outbreak but prevent it entirely, and also comment on the variation in measures of severity that emerge from our stochastic simulations. We hope that our model may help in designing effective strategies for universities in future disease outbreaks.

Effect of class size on student achievement in the COVID‐19 “new normal”

ABSTRACTThe COVID‐19 pandemic implied measures, such as school closures at the outbreak of the pandemic, negatively affected children's human capital. However, in some places, the situation later resulted in a reduction in class sizes in order to avoid the spread of SARS‐Cov‐2 in schools. We take advantage of this unexpected event to evaluate the effect on school performance of a significant class size reduction implemented in Spain, when schools were reopened. We find a positive and significant effect of the class size reduction of 0.11 standard deviations on overall students' performance. Given the situation and nature of our data, we interpret our estimates as a lower bound for the true effect of the reduction in class size. We conclude that the reduction in class size served, on average, to at least compensate for the other negative effects on learning. Our findings also point out the importance of evaluating the quality of the new and inexperienced additional teachers that need to be hired when implementing a general reduction of class size.

Teachers' Lived Experiences of Workplace Violence and Harassment Committed by Learners from Selected High Schools in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Despite several studies on learner-to-teacher workplace violence and harassment, the problem persists in some South African schools. Learner-to-teacher violence and harassment is a form of workplace violence and harassment, as schools are workplaces for teachers. Learner-to-teacher violence and harassment is therefore an important occupational health and safety issue for teachers. Employers are obliged to provide a safe working environment for teachers to enable quality teaching and learning in schools. The purpose of this interpretative phenomenological study was to explore and describe the lived experiences of high school teachers who have been targets of workplace violence and harassment perpetrated by learners at selected schools in Limpopo Province of South Africa. Many teachers were willing to share their lived experiences but, due to data saturation, only eleven participated after being selected through purposive sampling from seven high schools under a chosen sub-district. The research ethics of voluntary participation, informed consent, ethical clearance, and gatekeeper permission were observed. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews using an interview guide. The interviews were audio-taped, and field notes were also taken. Voice recordings were transcribed verbatim and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis into themes and sub-themes. The findings were confirmed by an independent coder to achieve trustworthiness. Teachers experienced physical workplace violence and harassment, verbal workplace violence and harassment, and nonverbal workplace violence and harassment from learners. Learner-to-teacher workplace violence and harassment affects teachers emotionally, and in turn, affects the quality of teaching and learning in schools. Some teachers propose the involvement of a community policing forum, the strengthening of schools' governing bodies, and reducing overcrowding in classrooms as possible solutions to deal with learner-to-teacher workplace violence and harassment.