Outer Space Activities Research Articles

Juridical Analysis of the Kingdom of Asgardia Space from the Terms of a State According to International Law

The objectives of the research to be achieved are to know and analyze concretely the issues expressed in the formulation of the problem, namely: 1. To find out the formation of the Kingdom of Asgardia Space according to international law. 2. To find out the obstacles and challenges in establishing the nation of Asgardia Space. The approach method that the author will use is a normative juridical approach, where the research approach will use literature review or library research by examining various library materials or secondary data. Data analysis used by the author is Qualitative Analysis. The results of this study are legal arrangements regarding the idea of establishing the country of Asgardia Space according to international law regulated in several conventions including the 1933 Montevideo Convention which regulates the rights and obligations of the state, where the country of Asgardia Space has fulfilled the requirements as a country, but these conditions is not yet perfect. Then it is also regulated in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty which regulates activities in outer space. In this case it regulates the activities and position of Asgardia Space as a country in outer space.

Space resource activities and the evolution of international space law

We are experiencing a period of renewed interest in human activities in outer space and, in particular, the return of humans to the Moon. Multiple lunar missions, including the NASA led Artemis project and the China and Russia International Lunar Research Station propose a sustained human presence on the Moon which will require in-situ resource extraction and usage. This article explores the likely impact of statements and actions by states on the future evolution of international space law in relation to space resource activities, highlighting the urgent need for greater clarity in the law regarding space resource activities. It will examine the relevant international law, domestic legislation, multilateral agreements, and recent international discussions concerning space resource activities. It concludes that the current international space law regime lacks clear laws regarding space resource activities and emphasises the importance of space law evolving in order to progress with industry and exploration.

Satellite Mega Constellations: Conflict between Freedom of Exploration and Unsustainable Outer Space Activities

Satellite Mega Constellations: Conflict between Freedom of Exploration and Unsustainable Outer Space Activities

Star Wars: Anti-Satellite Weapons and Orbital Debris

ABSTRACT The militarization and weaponization of outer space are increasing continuously with the development of new and more advanced space weapon systems by a growing number of nations. This is a direct consequence of the high and growing strategic value of outer space for defense, security, and warfare. This paper reviews trends in space weapon systems and analyzes the implications of anti-satellite military weapons for human activities in outer space. A direct consequence of the completion of anti-satellite military tests is that the amount of orbital debris has increased significantly. We use a simple physical – economic model to illustrate how anti-satellite military tests, particularly those using direct-ascent weapons, dramatically increase the probability that the Kessler syndrome will occur. Whereas the long-run impact of low altitude anti-satellite tests is limited because of atmospheric drag, at high altitude direct-ascent anti-satellite tests are persistently harmful for human activities in space. The paper also provides a simulation of the long-run effects of a war in space.

A Population Dynamics Approach to the Distribution of Space Debris in Low Earth Orbit

The presence of the debris in the Earth’s orbit poses a significant risk to human activity in outer space. This debris population continues to grow due to ground launches, the loss of external parts from space ships, and uncontrollable collisions between objects. A computationally feasible continuum model for the growth of the debris population and its spatial distribution is therefore critical. Here we propose a diffusion-collision model for the evolution of the debris density in the low-Earth orbit and its dependence on the ground-launch policy. We parametrize this model and test it against data from publicly available object catalogs to examine timescales for the uncontrolled growth. Finally, we consider sensible launch policies and cleanup strategies and how they reduce the future risk of collisions with active satellites or space ships.

COPUOS: Current and Future Challenges

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS) has an impressive record of being in the vanguard for over sixty years in leading the development of multilateral treaties, principles, guidelines and best practices to assist states and non-governmental organizations in ensuring the safety, security and sustainability of outer space activities for peaceful purposes. However, there are currently several stresses and challenges relating to the governance of the Committee suggesting that COPUOS is in jeopardy of losing this leadership in providing this essential guidance for the global space community. In this article we outline some of these stresses and propose that COPUOS or the UN General Assembly (UNGA), to which the Committee reports, conducts a review and analysis of the organization and method of work of the Committee to determine if adjustments might be adopted in order to deliver its mandate more effectively. COPUOS, Outer Space Treaty, United Nations General Assembly, UNOOSA

Implementing the Long-Term Sustainability Guidelines: What’s Next?

In June 2019, following an eight-year process, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS) adopted twenty-one voluntary, non-binding consensus Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. These guidelines are intended to support states in developing their space capabilities in a manner that enhances the safety of space operations and avoids causing harm to the outer space environment. The guidelines are relevant to both governmental and non-governmental entities. They address all space activities, whether planned or ongoing, and apply to all phases of a space mission, from prelaunch mission design through to operation and end-of-life disposal. The guidelines will only achieve their intended purposes if they are implemented as widely as possible. Successful guideline implementation will both rely on and strengthen international cooperation in space activities. Implementation of the guidelines will also be facilitated by improved coordination and information exchange among space actors from government, the private sector and civil society. This article discusses the roles and recent contributions of each of these types of actors in promoting guideline implementation and the sustainability of space activities in general. The article concludes with some observations on the second phase of the LTS discussions in UN COPUOS and the connection between space sustainability and sustainable development on Earth. LTS Guidelines, soft law, space sustainability, UN COPUOS

Space Diplomacy and the Artemis Accords

Summary The growth of human activity in outer space is attracting more International Relations (IR) scholar’s attention, enabling an understanding of the involvement of specific groups of actors and the dynamics of political negotiations that lead to concluding agreements on using outer space for peaceful purposes. This article provides analysis based on the triangulation of qualitative data gathered via document analysis and in-depth semi-structured expert interviews to gain insight into the involvement of the actors responsible for the negotiations that led to the Artemis Accords and their diplomatic communication style. The results identified different uses of public and private diplomatic communication for advancing norms of behaviour and transparency. Negotiators used public diplomatic communication in order to influence foreign governments on the need for norms of behaviour and transparency to further peaceful space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Private diplomatic communication facilitated the inclusion of commercial partners.

Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space: Role of Sustainable Development Goals and Its Legal Consequences

Celestial bodies had always been part of the process of volatile natural phenomena. The problem of collusion and encroaching path of each other, and interference of comets and dust has been as a forming part of space debris. Things have become riskier with the humans’ entry. This has generated a genuine apprehension of damage to the adverse environment of outer space. In this connection, the UNCOPUOS has been working on the agenda of sustainable space. In 2010, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the UNCOPUOS created a Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities to develop a consolidated set of voluntary, non-binding guidelines for the States, international organisations, and private entities to ensure sustainable space. 
 In this connection, the present paper discusses various aspects of sustainable space including possible applicability of SDGs to outer space. The part one of the paper introduces the concept of sustainable development. It also highlights the global environmental protection regime and underneath politics. Part two of the paper canvases the role of space (technologies) in achieving the SDGs. Part three of the paper explores to answer the question “whether SDGs includes Space in it or not?” If not, how the idea of “sustainable space” can be achieved? There, the authors explain the need for sustainable space and discussion happening around. In part four, authors conclude by arguing for evolving regime for sustainable space and resist from committing the same mistake that we did to the earth environment.

Implementing safety zones for lunar activities under the Artemis Accords

Improving technology could enable new commercial and scientific activities in outer space, including crewed stations, space mining, and advanced planetary science in locations like the Moon or asteroids. To facilitate novel space exploration activities, the United States led the development of a new multilateral set of principles, the Artemis Accords. The Accords and other soft law propose the ability to establish “safety zones” surrounding space operations of participant states and mission-authorized nationals. Safety zones are controversial because their implementation could violate the non-appropriation and other principles of the Outer Space Treaty. Thus, successfully implementing safety zones is essential to the Artemis Accords’ framework to unlock space resources and encourage other novel activities. This study reviews the history and principles behind safety zones in outer space. It identifies the requirements such zones place on operators and the obligations they can create for other states and actors. In evaluating three hypothetical case studies on the Moon, it proposes an algorithm for the establishment, alteration, management, and termination of a safety zone. Finally, it recommends pathways to develop and implement safety zones in an iterative manner consistent with international law and best practices for industry, including conceiving of safety zones as “safety conditions.”

Outer Space, the Final Frontier of Cyberspace: Regulating Cybersecurity Issues in Two Interwoven Domains

ABSTRACT In the last decades, space activities have become more automated and digitized due to the technological development. As such, it is crucial to consider cyberspace and its risks to guarantee safety, security, and long-term sustainability of space activities, as well as to ensure that activities in outer space are carried out for the benefit of humankind. The paper assumes that both areas are global commons and numerous interactions exist between them, notably in terms of cybersecurity. Indeed, there is an increasing risk of attack against satellites, including interferences, jamming, and hacking, which reveals that the security aspects of satellite systems and data transmission cannot be overlooked, and the risk of cyberwarfare is real. Cybersecurity regulations at international, regional, and national levels to determine the potential elements applicable to space activities are examined in this paper. The paper stresses the need to bring together actors involved in the domain of cyber and in space activities with the aim to implement a structured, appropriated, and responsive regulatory framework to cyberthreats by considering the interdependence between these two areas. In this regard, it is argued that a compartmentalized approach with relation to cyber and outer space should be avoided.

Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities and Space Traffic Management

Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities and Space Traffic Management

Definition of “Armed Conflict” in Outer Space

Countries should follow the principle of peaceful development when developing and utilizing outer space resources and rights, but the increasing militarization or weaponization of space is contrary to this basic principle. The militarization or weaponization of space not only creates tension in international relations but also greatly increases the danger of armed conflicts in space. According to the basic theory of international humanitarian law, it can be deduced that once an armed conflict in outer space breaks out, the existing international humanitarian law can be applied. Then, determining the definition of “armed conflict in outer space” and the possible types of “armed conflict in outer space” are the prerequisites for the application of international humanitarian law. Although no armed conflict in outer space has actually broken out yet, it does not prevent us from conducting tentative research on the concept of “armed conflict” in combination with the characteristics of outer space activities.

Optimization of the primary nozzle for design a high entrainment ejector in spacesuit portable life support system

In looking forward to the future of human space exploration, it is increasingly stringent for the ventilation circuit subsystem in terms of reliability, simplicity and energy-efficient. Considering this requirement, the ejector, with the advantages of miniature size, no parasitic energy consumption and high reliability, is considered an appropriate alternative to the ventilation fan because it simultaneously implements the functions of mixing, entraining, and lifting pressure. This paper proposed a high entrainment ejector for application in spacesuit portable life support systems. The optimizations of the ejector nozzle geometrical parameters and nozzle exit position (NXP) were performed using a validated three-dimensional numerical model under various operating conditions. The results show that the NXP has a more significant effect on entrainment performance than other geometrical parameters in spacesuit portable life support systems, and the optimum NXP are not impacted by changes of the primary flow pressure and mixing chamber diameter, which similarly obtained the optimal entrainment ratio at the nozzle exit position of 2 mm. The maximum increments of entrainment ratio with the NXP varying from −4 mm to 8 mm are 0.2945 and 0.7664 under different primary flow pressures and mixing chamber diameters, respectively. Compared with the nozzle exit position, the most effects of nozzle converging angle and length on entrainment ratio are just 0.0864 and 0.0445. The optimum ejector extends the oxygen service duration by 12 min compared to the original one for the same volume of an oxygen tank, which is vital for the astronauts to conduct extravehicular activities in outer space.

Anti-weaponization of Outer Space for Maintaining Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities

Space weaponization should be prevented because of its detrimental effects on the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA). International law that currently governs weaponization in outer space should be implemented, and international rules that pertain to the LTSOSA should impose direct and indirect soft-law constraints on space weaponization. Nevertheless, the direct and indirect roles of international law in inhibiting space weaponization are limited, and a legal lacuna still exists in the governance of conventional weapons in the Earth's orbit. Independent and more focused discussions on specific issues related to space security are recommended given that the disagreement on related issues has prevented real progress from being made during multilateral discussions addressing the space technologies that could be used in a hostile manner. The integration of some norms of responsible space activity into the new LTSOSA Guidelines discussed under the auspices of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is also recommended, along with an ongoing strong political constraint on the deployment and testing of dedicated space weapons in outer space through the adoption of the United Nations General Assembly resolutions and international condemnation. The latter is a good alternative under the current circumstances to preserve the LTSOSA by working against the weaponization of outer space.

Space traffic management as a necessity for future orbital operations a French perspective

As the number of artificial satellites put into orbit around Earth is growing very rapidly for scientific, commercial, defence or educational purposes, the need to take measures to improve safety of space operations and to contribute to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities are becoming more and more important.This paper provides an analysis of the main identified challenges to be addressed by space traffic management (STM) and an overview of a set of actions considered to tackle those challenges. The complementarity of political guidelines, regulation, standardization and operational capabilities is discussed, taking into account the need to combine the expected efficiency of the proposed actions with European industry competitiveness and also national and European security constraints.

Addressing disaster and health risks for sustainable outer space.

Any future outer space exploration and exploitation should more fully consider disaster and health risks as part of aiming for sustainability. The advent of the so-called "New Space" race, age, or era characterized by democratization, commercialization, militarization, and overlapping outer space activities such as tourism presents challenges for disaster-related and health-related risks in and for outer space. Such challenges have been extensively researched for earth, but less so for space. This article presents an overview of key aspects for addressing disaster and health risks in outer space within a wider sustainability framing. After an introduction providing background and scope, this article's nextsection considers some key health and disaster risks within sustainable outer space and offers insights from earth. The following two sections apply this knowledge by focusing on how analogue missions and international legal and voluntary regimes can each be used to reduce risks and potentially make outer space healthier and safer. The findings advocate that there is a wealth of knowledge and experience about mitigating risks to health and disaster risk reduction on earth that can inform spaceflight and exploration. The examples explored include the physical, legal, and regulatory aspects of the "New Space" industry, which highlights the relevance of equating examples on earth. The article concludes that expectations must be managed regarding scenarios for which response, rescue, and recovery are precluded, prompting a necessary focus on prevention and risk reduction. In doing so, earth-based scenarios and aspects of the so-called "Old Space" offer useful insights and should be examined further for "New Space."Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:994-1001. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Article: Recycling the Outer Space Treaties: Analysing the Potential for On-Orbit Servicing Agreements

On-orbit servicing (OOS) has continued to gain popularity as a possible solution to improving the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of space activities. However, the novel notion of this space activity, coupled with its several implications, raises questions and concerns as to its status within the international legal framework. The Corpus Juris Spatialis addresses states and their outer space activity, but on-orbit services will likely be carried out by private entities. In this regard, bilateral contracts between companies offering on-orbit services will need to consider obligations and rights under the current international legal framework. In so doing, the spirit of the provisions of the space treaties can be easily implemented into agreements between private parties. on-orbit servicing, contracts, commercial space activities, outer space

The development and implementation of international UN guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities

In recent years the world has witnessed a rapid increase in the number space actors and new satellites being launched into space. Coupled with the steady increase of orbital debris from the space activities of previous decades, this has given rise to concerns about the long-term sustainability of space activities. This paper describes the international process to develop the UN Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (usually referred to in abbreviated form as “the LTS Guidelines”). We present the general content of the guidelines and the first steps by the international community to implement these guidelines. To frame this discussion in the context of the present Special Issue focusing on space environment management and space sustainability, we present some suggestions on how COSPAR could support the implementation of the LTS Guidelines and further multilateral work on space sustainability.

A legal approach to the national emergency management of space weather: China as a case study

The attention of the international space community has been drawn to space weather over the last two decades, not only because of its uncertainty and its adverse effects on the safety of space operations and the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA), but also because of its negative societal and economic impacts on the ground. The national emergency management of space weather is indispensable for China because China has both a large number of assets in outer space and infrastructure on the ground that are vulnerable to space weather. While China gives weight to the monitoring of space weather events by deploying a series of space- and ground-based systems, its national-level management of space weather events is inadequate. China, compared to the USA, is still a long way from having scientific and effective emergency management of severe space weather in the areas of space weather science research, response, and rulemaking. Current international hard laws that address the space weather issue play a limited role because these rules are all general. The Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (the UNCOPUOS Guidelines for the LTSOSA), although they provide soft-law guidance addressing the harmful impacts of space weather on space activities from the perspectives of mitigation, preparedness, monitoring, and early warning, neither address the response to or recovery from extreme space weather events in outer space nor provide for space weather mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery regimes on the ground. Apart from the international law and the soft-law guidance, Chinese national laws only provide general guidelines for the emergency management of space weather. To enhance its national capacity to address space weather and minimize the harmful societal and economic impacts of space weather, a comprehensive legal regime for the emergency management of space weather should be in place in China; this should primarily revolve around mitigation, preparedness, monitoring, early warning, response, recovery, capacity-building, and international cooperation.