Outer Himalaya Research Articles

Chemometric evaluation, source apportionment, and health risk analysis of natural spring water in Murree, outer Himalayas

IntroductionContamination of water is a critical threat to human health at a global level. Water pollutants, such as heavy metals, can have adverse effects on the well-being of humans, animals, and the natural ecosystem of a region. Study AreaMurree is the most visited tourist destination in Pakistan. The rural population of Murree uses natural spring water for drinking, household use, and irrigation. MethodsThis study assessed the elemental concentration of water from 20 natural springs in Murree using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy. Source apportionment and spatial distribution of heavy metals were assessed using statistical approaches such as Pearson's correlation coefficient, principal component analysis, and interpolation. The study assessed the quality of water for drinking and irrigation in Murree's natural spring water using the metal index, sodium absorption ratio, magnesium absorption ratio, percentage sodium, Kelly's ratio, and salinity hazard. The health risks associated with heavy metals were assessed by computing Average daily dose, Hazard quotient, Hazard Index, and Cancer Risk. ResultsThe mean concentration of metals in mgL-1 varied in the following order: Ca (51.23) > Na (22.3) > Mg (16.26) > Si (6.51) > K (1.59) > Se (1.17) > Sr (0.48) > Ba (0.209) > Al (0.060) > Li (0.015) > Zn (0.005) > Fe (0.0033) > Ni (0.0032) > Cr (0.001). Metal index was calculated for Al (0.3), Ba (0.29), Cr (0.024), Ni (0.14), Fe (0.004), Zn (0.002), Sr (0.07), Mg (0.32), and Ca (0.25), revealing low levels of metal pollution. The geology of the study area was identified as the primary source of heavy metals in the water. The estimated values of health hazards showed that ingestion is the primary exposure pathway, with children having a higher risk. The health hazards posed by the heavy metal contact from the waters of Murree are not alarming. Quality indices show that the irrigation water sourced from the natural springs is of satisfactory quality. ConclusionThe study concluded that the spring water of Murree has low concentrations of heavy metals; their concentration is dependent upon the geology of the study area and is good for drinking and irrigation.

Assessment of natural radioactivity in spring water and radiation shielding properties of soil from a tourist hub in outer Himalayas

Assessment of natural radioactivity in spring water and radiation shielding properties of soil from a tourist hub in outer Himalayas

Impact of Land Use Changes on Soil Erodibility in the Outer Himalayas

Land use change hurts soil characteristics such as permeability, soil texture and aggregate stability, soil erodibility etc. which make soils susceptible to erosion and degradation. The outer Himalayan region is prone to large-scale soil erosion by water owing to the vast disparity in the slope gradient, undulating relief, largely mountainous joined with high-intensity rainfall and lithological characteristics of these rocks. Soil erodibility, one of the key factors affecting the rate of erosion can be estimated by using various soil erodibility indices. In examining erodibility indices across various land use changes, it was evident that both the clay ratio (CR) and modified clay ratio (MCR) escalated as land use shifts from forest to more disturbed environments. As we transit from forest to agriculture, these ratios increased and were even more marked in the transition from forest to wasteland. The erosional behaviour as per CR and MCR in agriculture land use transitions could be arranged in the order that forest < agriculture <builtup< wastelands. Among wasteland use transitions, the high CR and MCR indicated potential challenges in soil management, while the lower CR and MCR in transitions to agriculture and forest suggested more favourable soil conditions for these specific uses. The CR and MCR ratios indicated that the lower the ratio, the more would be the clay accumulation and lesser the erosion. This information is crucial for understanding the implications of land use changes on soil erosion and health and for guiding effective land management practices in diverse ecological settings.

Morpho-structural signatures of neotectonic activity along the HFT bound Himalayan mountain front in Kathgodam-Chorgallia sector of NW Himalaya, India

Thrusting supports the development of diverse landforms and deformational structures in the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) region between Kathgodam and the Chorgallia sector, according to this study. The influence of the active tectonic condition in the area was analyzed using seven geomorphic indices, which also underlined the importance of morpho-structural study utilizing remote sensing, geomorphic indices, tectono-geomorphic landforms, field evidence, and luminescence dating. The investigation of sub-basins surrounding the HFT reveals moderate to high tectonic activity, with tectonic activity concentrating in the eastern half and decreasing toward the west. A topographic discontinuity was also observed in the region as indirect active tectonic evidence. Hanging wall rocks have well-preserved features that govern tectonic transport direction, and the HFT in this region is emergent. Shear sense indications point to southerly tectonic migration, with a few modest northward shear senses indicating northward movement, which might be attributable to reverse thrusting along the HFT at some time during the Outer Himalaya's tectonic history. Petrographic investigations reveal sustained frontal deformation at various intervals, with well-preserved thrust-induced deformation fingerprints in deformed rocks throughout the Jam Raula and Sukhi nadi sections. Micro thrust duplexes, or micro-scale asymmetrical drag folds, are shown in thin section investigations as a result of HFT-related brittle-ductile deformation at moderate temperature and pressure. The sandy unit from the Quaternary sediments yields 10 ± 0.8 ka, 11.8 ± 0.7 ka, 17 ± 1 ka, and 56 ± 3 ka quartz OSL dates, demonstrating the migration of hanging wall rocks on footwall post-Siwalik fluvial deposits along the HFT plane and reactivation of the HFT in the study area.

The Potwar Siwaliks: an impressive Neogene record of terrestrial rocks and fossils

Abstract Outcropping sedimentary deposits of the Potwar Plateau in northern Pakistan comprise the most complete record of Neogene Siwalik rocks and faunas to be found in the Indian subcontinent documenting an extraordinary record of terrestrial vertebrate fossils for the Miocene Epoch. The Potwar Plateau is a portion of the Siwalik Hills, the mountainous terrane of the outer Himalayas extending over 2000 km across the northern margin of the Indian subcontinent. Siwalik strata accumulated as a molassic sedimentary wedge shed southward with the erosion of the rising crust as it was uplifted via plate tectonics. The long Potwar record of numerous superposed assemblages of fossil vertebrates preserves a history spanning many millions of years, and constitutes a unique geoheritage resource for Asia and for the world. The record can be dated and interpreted with a high degree of precision rarely achieved in terrestrial settings. The Potwar Siwalik sediments document 18 million years of change in the subtropical ecosystem of South Asia, in which global to regional climate change directly impacted terrestrial palaeofloras and palaeofaunas, forcing coevolution of elements of the terrestrial food web, and with that the modernization of mammalian groups. The potential to trace coincidence of abiotic changes with evolution within lineages is unusual.

Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) invasion reshapes the pattern of plant communities and edaphic properties across the north-western Himalayan landscape

Development and economic growth, coupled with climate change and other environmental shifts, have made the unique and pristine mountainous regions vulnerable to plant invasions. While the effects of exotic plant invasions on community structure have been extensively studied in the lowlands, there is a dearth of such research in the altitudinal ecosystems. The objective of the present study was to investigate the ecological impact of Bidens pilosa (blackjack, Beggars tick; Asteraceae) on vegetation and soil dynamics across the north-western Himalayan landscape. Vegetation and soil sampling were conducted in paired invaded and control quadrats along an altitudinal gradient (300–1500 m asl) in the outer Himalayan region of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India. The presence of B. pilosa has a notable impact on reducing alpha diversity, with a more pronounced effect observed above 600 m asl. Pairwise beta diversity indices indicate that the invasion of B. pilosa has changed the natural species composition above 700 m asl, likely due to species turnover (i.e., species replacement). The results of NMDS and PERMANOVA analyses further support the notion that the invasion of B. pilosa has considerably homogenized the species composition along the selected elevational gradient. Further, significant variations in most of the soil parameters between the two invasion classes were observed within the elevation range of 600–1200 m asl. Overall, the results indicate that invasion by B. pilosa reshaped the patterns of floristic composition and soil properties in the north-western Himalayan landscape, leading to biotic and edaphic homogenization across an altitudinal gradient. The most substantial impact was noticed above the altitudinal range of 600 m asl, indicating that B. pilosa prefers mildly temperate climates over tropical ones in the studied area. It is pertinent to monitor and control the spread of B. pilosa in the Himalayan ecosystem to ensure the conservation of its unique biodiversity.

Uncovering the Impact of Erosion Conservation Techiques on Soil Attributes in Shivaliks of Lower Himalayas of Jammu, India

The present study uncovering the impact of erosion conservation techniques on soil attributes in Shivaliks of lower Himalayas of Jammu. Soil erosion is considered as the main cause of land degradation in hilly areas espially in outer Himalayas. Although the problem persisted on the earth for a longer period, it has become severe in recent times due to increased man-environment interactions. The study was conducted in 2021 at the Merth village of Jammu and Kashmir, India, which is situated in the Kathua district. The catchment area investigated had a clay loam texture and a slope gradient of 3-6%, with a total area of 24.8 acres. The result shows that mean value of bulk density under various erosion control techniques was highest in overgrazing prevention (1.40g cm-3) followed by perimeter runoff control, terrace farming and contour plowing and was lowest in cover crop (1.33g cm-3). The carbon content also increased with the and was highest under cover crop. Carbon act as bridge between nutrient, water and soil. The study strongly recommends adoption of resource conservation techniques for reducing soil erosion & water conservation in submontane Shivaliks.

Levels and effects of uranium in groundwater sources of Shivalik hills, outer Himalaya, India

Levels and effects of uranium in groundwater sources of Shivalik hills, outer Himalaya, India

The potential distribution of the yellow monitor, Varanus flavescens (Hardwick & Gray) under multiple climate, land cover and dispersal scenarios in Nepal

Context Human-induced changes in climate and land cover have altered the distribution of fauna around the globe. Some reptiles have been found to be vulnerable to these changes; therefore, studies to identify the impact of the changes on other groups of reptiles are necessary. Aims We aimed to study the impact of climate and land cover change on the yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) in Nepal. We also aimed to identify the current distribution range and predict the potential distribution under multiple climate change, corresponding land cover change, and dispersion scenarios in the near- and mid-future. Methods We used available presence locations with a candidate set of the least-correlated environmental variables and an Ensemble of Small Models (ESM), a Species Distribution Model (SDM) approach suitable for species with small sample size. Additionally, dispersal scenarios of 1 km, 5 km, and 10 km were added to the model to determine the future distribution under the dispersal scenarios. Key results We found soil particle size, distance to forest, precipitation of wettest quarter, bulk density, and elevation were the five most important variables contributing to the distribution of the species. The Terai lowland and wide valleys in Outer Himalayas are currently suitable but are expected to experience a substantial decrease under most future climate projections and dispersal scenarios. Conclusions The distribution is mostly dependent on soil-related variables; however, climatic variables might have a greater impact on future suitability. Implications Limiting emissions contributing to climatic changes, conserving the soil outside the protected areas, and the potential areas where the species will not experience habitat loss might contribute to the conservation of the species.

Documentation of Indigenous Traditional Knowledge on Some Medicinal Plants in Saharanpur District of Uttar Pradesh, India

The present ethnomedicinal exploration study presents the indigenous use of certain medicinal plants by the local people of the Saharanpur district in the Uttar Pradesh state of India. The survey was conducted during 2020-2022 in order to access information about traditional knowledge on medicinal plants of the study area and their conservation. Saharanpur is situated in the foothills of Shiwalik that constitute the outer Himalaya. This region forms the northern most part of Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The climate of the area is tropical due to the proximity of the Himalayan region. This area represents a great diversity of medicinal plants and contains deep indigenous traditional knowledge. The objective of the study was to record and document this traditional knowledge of medicinal plants for the welfare of future generations. The methods employed for ethnomedicinal data collection included semi-structured interviews, field observation, preference ranking and direct-matrix ranking. For the collection of ethnomedicinal information, the knowledgeable persons, plant collectors and ayurvedic medical practitioners of the study area were interacted. The conventional medicines obtained from these medicinal plants has been proved highly beneficial in maintaining good health and accordingly ethnic community still depends upon their indigenous knowledge to a greater extent to heal their ailments. A total of 82 plant species were collected, of which 66 plants of medicinal importance were documented with their botanical name, local name, family, habit and parts used. These 66 plant species belong to 59 genera and 35 families. The most dominant families recorded were Amaranthaceae followed by Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae. Herbs were the most common growth form followed by trees, shrubs and climbers. Among the different plant parts, the leaves were most commonly used to treat various diseases followed by root, seed, whole plant, fruit, stem, bark, flower and wood. It was observed that these plants are widely used for the treatment of various ailments such as asthma, kidney stone, rheumatism, fever, urinary infections, syphilis, leucorrhoea, tuberculosis, eye infections, leprosy and skin disorders by the local inhabitants of the study area. This investigation will be of great importance to conserve the heritable knowledge in the field of herbal treatment.

Six Decades of Uranium Exploration in the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic Formations of Himalaya: Challenges, Understanding and Strategies

Abstract The Himalayan geo-environment with a six-decade long history of Uranium exploration by Atomic Minerals Directorate (AMD) commenced way back in early 1960’s, has helped in identifying scores of uranium shows. Five major types of uranium mineralization viz., (i) Vein, (ii) Shear controlled hydrothermal, (iii) Disseminated, (iv) Syngenetic and (v) Sandstone hosted, have been identified, which for the ease of exploration, are further grouped as per their respective locales in the four Himalayan tectonic blocks. viz., (i) Sub or Outer Himalaya, (ii) The Lesser Himalaya (iii) Upper or Higher Himalaya and (iv) Para or Trans Himalaya. The vast spread of uranium metallogeny in the Himalaya from Precambrian to Tertiary is a very favorable factor for locating significant uranium deposits. Himalayan orogen is highly dynamic with continued tectonic evolution throughout its geological history. This poses several constraints on exploration strategies, both in terms of logistics and diversified geology. However, the tectonic evolution and regional correlation have been understood to a large extent, which have helped in identifying some common controls and potential locales for uranium metallogeny and hence may be taken as a guide for further detailed exploration.

Floristic and vegetation diversity of Gadoon hills outer Himalayas district Swabi, Pakistan

Floristic and vegetation diversity of Gadoon hills outer Himalayas district Swabi, Pakistan

Unraveling seismic hazard by estimating prolonged crustal strain buildup in Kumaun-Garhwal, Northwest Himalaya using GPS measurements

Himalayan mountain belt is one of the most rapidly deforming plate collision zones and is prone to produce megathrust earthquakes. In this study, a detailed measure of present-day deformation and strain-build up rate in the Kumaun-Garhwal region of Northwest Himalaya is carried out through eighteen GNSS stations extending from Gangetic Plains to Higher Himalaya during 2014–2019, to assess the seismic hazard potential of the region. The recorded GPS data at sites is analyzed along with nearby stable International GNSS stations for estimating daily basis precise positioning of the sites and further velocity solution is generated after applying the random noise estimated from GPS time series data. The acquired site velocity is used to calculate the principal strain rates and rotation rates using two independent approaches; least-square inversion approach based on scale factor and triangulation method. The derived strain rate reveals a mean rate of compression of ∼−0.07 ± 0.01 μ strain/yr towards northeast-southwest that gradually increases from the Outer Himalaya to Higher Himalaya for both approaches. We assume that this plate boundary compression deforms the Himalayan wedge across the Main Himalaya Thrust (MHT) and use Okada formulation for a rectangular dip-slip dislocation to calculate the plate convergence rate. Based on a regular grid search, we obtain a best fit convergence rate of 16.7 ± 2.0 mm/yr and locking depth of 17.4 ± 3.5 km. The strain budget analysis indicates that the Northwest Himalayan region has enough potential to produce at least one devastating earthquake of Mw ∼8 in the present scenarios.

Sulphur Dynamics under different land uses of Outer Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh

The knowledge of different sulphur (S) forms and their relationship with soil properties is of much relevance in assessing the short- and long-term availability of the nutrients to crops and in formulating sound fertilizer recommendations. For this purpose one hundred and one representative soil samples were collected from the study area and analyzed for various physicochemical properties and forms of sulphur (water soluble, exchangeable, available, organic, non-sulphate and total S) using standard methods. The different forms of sulphur viz., water soluble, exchangeable, available, organic, non-sulphate and total sulphur ranged from 1.1 to 7.0, 1.9 to 10.9, 3.1 to 21.1, 75.9 to 316.1, 8.0 to 41.5 and 75.5 to 372.5 mg kg-1, respectively in soils of Outer Himalayas under different land uses. The content of different forms of sulphur present in these soils were in the order of total sulphur, organic sulphur, non-sulphate sulphur, available sulphur, exchangeable sulphur and water soluble sulphur. All the forms of S correlated positively and significantly with organic carbon and clay content of soils. A negative and significant relationship was also observed between all forms of sulphur and sand content of soils. In the present study, it was also found that all forms of S present in soils were significantly and positively correlated with each other. The knowledge regarding different forms of S in soils and their availability controlled by different soil properties will be helpful for its management to optimize crop yields in the Outer Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh.

Hill Slope Failure During The Development Of Infrastructure Projects In Himalaya: Case Study of Udhampur- Ramban National Highway, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Himalaya is youngest tectonic Active Mountain and northern boundary of India. Various infrastructure projects are under develop in Himalayan region for the better connectivity of peoples and national security of border line. Widening of 295 km National Highway-44 in Jammu and Kashmir is an important developmental project. The highway passes through Outer Himalayan and Higher Himalayan sequences of rocks and is frequently affected by landslides at various places. The paper deals with 43 km Udhampur-Chenani and Nashri- Ramban section of the highway within sedimentary and metamorphic rock sequence. The area is prone to landslides on account of fragile geological, topographic and hydrological conditions. The study area has high rainfall intensity and numerous old landslides zones. During the project feasibility stage, project authority has identified the landslide prone area and suggested precautionary measures but during the construction work various unpredicted landslide and ground sinking events happened which given trouble in project construction cost and project completion time. In this paper, the challenges faced due to landslide and ground failure as failure of old slide adjutant to road construction, agriculture and residential ground failure at higher altitude due to road construction, collapse of high tension towers in cut slopes; its impact on construction activities; are discussed with mitigation measures for unidentified landslide related challenges.

Feeding habits and habitat use of barking deer (Muntiacus vaginalis) in Himalayan foothills, Pakistan.

Northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis; “barking deer”) is a shy and small-sized cervid mammal, limited to the outer Himalayan foothill forests in Pakistan. Habitat characteristics were measured by locating direct and indirect signs. To quantify habitat utilization of barking deer, 80 field surveys were conducted in the study area along transects. 1200 Quadrats at 50 m intervals were deployed along these transect lines to determine microhabitat factors associated with seasonal distribution. The food composition of the barking deer was determined through fecal droppings analysis by micro-histological technique. Forty-five fecal samples of barking deer were collected from the study area (Murree-Kotli Sattian-Kahuta National Pak); summer (28) and winter (17). The micro-histological analysis revealed that more plant species are available in its habitat during the summer season (27) as compared to winter (19). Due to browsing nature barking deer mostly feed on trees in both seasons. While shrubs are slightly higher in winters. In summer barking deer consumed 10 Trees, 6 Shrubs, 5 Herbs, and 6 kinds of grass species. Dominant tree species were Phyllanthus emblica and Acacia modesta. Dominant shrub species were Ziziphus nummularia and Justicia adhatoda. In winter barking deer consumed 8 Trees, 7 Shrubs, 3 Herbs, and 1 Grass. Dominant tree species were Bauhinia variegata and Acacia modesta while shrubs included Ziziphus nummularia and Carissa opaca.

First Miocene rodents from Kutch, western India

ABSTRACT Following recent work on the Miocene terrestrial vertebrate fauna of Kutch, we focused on bulk wet screening for microfossils from beds exposed near Tapar (=Tappar) and Pasuda villages in central Kutch (Gujarat), western India. Processing >1500 kg of bulk samples, led to the recovery of diverse rodent remains (nine species, mostly sciurids, rhizomyids, cricetids, and murids) as well as a vespertillionid bat and a possible lorisid for the first time from the Miocene succession of Kutch. This complements the previously described large and megamammal fossils of rhinos, anthracotheres, proboscideans, and ruminants from the same sections. Isolated rodent teeth represent taxa of generally short time ranges and wide distribution that assume considerable biostratigraphic significance. The rodents are similar to contemporaneous species to the north in India and to the west in Pakistan, including the Potwar Plateau. Based on the rodent assemblage, early Late Miocene (>10 Ma) age is assigned to the Tapar and Pasuda localities. The Kutch sample provides a new reference point for detailed comparisons with the better studied Manchar and Siwalik faunas of South Asia but also with broadly contemporaneous faunas from the Murree, Dagshai/Kasauli, and Dharamsala beds of the Outer Himalaya, and the Kargil molasse of Ladakh.

Determining limiting factors influencing fish kills at Rewalsar Lake: a case study with reference to Dal Lake (Mcleodganj), western Himalaya, India

The present study at Rewalsar Lake situated within the outer Himalayan rocks of western Himalaya determines the limiting factors causing fish kills, repeatedly during the summer season. The Dal Lake situated in Kangra re-entrant is selected as a reference lake to compare the physiochemical parameters of two lakes. During the month of April, the concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, F−, Br−, and HCO3− were found to be dominant at the Rewalsar, rather than the Dal Lake. However, the SO42− and Cl− were noticed more at Dal Lake which may be due to the lithological abundance of dolomite and gypsum minerals. The box and scatter plots indicated similar pattern of variations in the physiochemical parameters from these lakes. Although the dissolved oxygen (DO) at Dal Lake was observed lowest from May to June (5.3–5.4 mg l−1), and it was above the stress level for fishes. The temperature during April in the Rewalsar Lake increased to 25 °C, which decreased the oxygen holding capacity of water; therefore, DO level dropped to 1.5 mg l−1. The bottom deposited and floating organic material degradation, induced by rise in temperature further promoted the dissolved oxygen depletion and turned the lake greenish as well as blackish colored. The Rewalsar Lake thus turned hypoxic, and an extensive mass of fishes abruptly perished from the lake in April, which may further be considered a main limiting factor for the fish kills, repetitively ever since a long time period from April to June.

Assessment of Soil Fertility Status in a Cereal Based Cropping System at Outer Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh

Soil fertility management plays a key role in sustaining different production systems. Present investigation aimed at determining available nutrient status in cultivated soils under maize-wheat and paddy-wheat cropping sequences in outer Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh. Based on the standard GPS based soil sampling methodology, composite surface soil samples (0-15 cm) from 38 and 15 representative sites were collected from soils under maize-wheat and paddy-wheat cropping sequences, respectively. Six to eight cores of surface soils were collected from croplands to make one composite sample in 2016 & 2017. Out of 38 (maize-wheat) sites, 24 and 14 sites represent the cultivated Entisols and Inceptisols. Similarly, under paddy-wheat, 8 and 7 sites represent Entisols and Inceptisols. The results of the investigation revealed that soils were medium in available N & K, low in available P & S, high in available Ca & Mg, sufficient in available Cu, Fe & Mn and deficient to sufficient in available Zn and B. Inceptisols had higher value of all the nutrients as compared to Entisols. The available nutrient status viz., N, P, S, Zn and B were deficient to the extent of 26, 42, 57, 40 and 42 per cent, respectively. The overall evaluation of the study area revealed very high variation on the fertility status.

OVERVIEW ON PLANT CASSIA SOPHERA LINN

Medicinal herbs are moving from fringe to mainstream use, with a more significant number of people seeking remedies and health approaches free from side effects caused by synthetic chemicals Cassia sophera Linn. (Caesalpinaceae), an important drug in Unani medicine, act as a blood purifier, carminative, purgative, digestive, and diaphoretic. Many compounds have been reported from plants belonging to genus Cassia. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Cassia sophera. It is obtained from deciduous and mixed-monsoon forests throughout greater parts of India, ascending to 1300 m in outer Himalaya. It is widely used in the traditional medicinal system of India has been reported to possess analgesic, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective and antiasthmatic activity, etc. India officially recognizes over 3000 plants for their medicinal value. It is generally estimated that over 6000 plants in India are in use in traditional, folk, and herbal medicine.