Outer Chain Research Articles

New nanoadsorbent based on magnetic iron oxide containing 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane in outer chain (Fe3O4@SiO2-cyclen) for adsorption and removal of selected heavy metal ions Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+

Magnetic Fe3O4@SiO2-cyclen nanoparticles were prepared and used as adsorbent for Cd2+, Pb2+ and Cu2+ from aqueous solution removal process controlled with differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) and hanging mercury drop electrode (HDME). Nanomaterial was synthesised in three-step process co-precipitation of Fe3O4 core, coating with silane and N-(3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1-carboxamide silane functionalisation. The effectiveness of each step of the synthesis was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (pXRD) and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) techniques. The Fe3O4@SiO2-cyclen nanoparticles were employed for Cd2+, Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions elimination from individual and mixed solutions by carrying out titration with a suspension of nanocomposites. The binding level for all ions both in the individual solutions and in the mixture was very similar at high levels. For Cd2+ and Cu2+ ions sorption efficiency level was from 83% to 89%, while for Pb2+ ions it was slightly lower at the level over 73%. In all cases, the equilibrium adsorption capacity parameter was over 1 mg/g and reached definitely higher values for individual ions solutions. The research results revealed that Fe3O4@SiO2- cyclen nanoparticles can be a promising adsorbent for magnetic heavy metal ions water treatment agents.

Pasting properties of high-amylose wheat in conventional and high-temperature Rapid Visco Analyzer: Molecular contribution of starch and gluten proteins

The popularity of high-amylose cultivars of main crops (e.g., high-amylose wheat, HAW) has been increasing because of their unique functional properties and enhanced nutritional values. In the current study, we employed the high-temperature Rapid Visco-Analyzer (HTRVA) to evaluate the performance of HAW flours and starches with an extensive range of amylose contents under high-temperature processing. The pasting parameters, total setback viscosity (TSV) and final viscosity (FV) from HTRVA, did not significantly correlate ( p > 0.05) with those from conventional RVA. The results indicate that conventional RVA could not robustly predict the pasting behaviours of HAW ingredients at high-temperature processing (partially due to different extent of starch disruption and leaching). The amylose content by iodine colorimetry method was not a good indicator of the cooling and retrogradation process of HAW flour and starch after high-temperature heating, with low R 2 values of the linear regression of TSV and FV on amylose content. However, TSV and FV of HAW flours as analysed by HTRVA negatively correlate ( p < 0.01) with wheat flour protein content, as well as with the abundance of glutenin (low molecular weight subunit, p < 0.05) as identified by a SWATH-MS (Sequential Window Acquisition of all Theoretical Mass Spectra) proteomics method. The protein attributes could contribute to restricting both swelling of granules during heating and the reassociation of starch polymers during cooling. Amylose (AM) and amylopectin (AP) fine structural features also regulate pasting behaviours. In particular, longer amylopectin outer chains promote peak viscosity, while larger amylose (whole) molecules have the opposite effect. This study presents new insights into the molecular basis for the pasting behaviours of HAW in conventional and high-temperature RVA. • High-temperature RVA profiles were compared to conventional RVA profiles. • High heating temperature reduced holding strength and final viscosity. • Peak viscosity was increased by longer AP outer chains but reduced by larger AM. • Total protein did not correlate with high temperature or conventional RVA parameters. • Detailed glutenin profiles (e.g., LMW-GS) show correlations with pasting parameters.

Light chain 2 is a Tctex-type related axonemal dynein light chain that regulates directional ciliary motility in Trypanosoma brucei.

Flagellar motility is essential for the cell morphology, viability, and virulence of pathogenic kinetoplastids. Trypanosoma brucei flagella beat with a bending wave that propagates from the flagellum's tip to its base, rather than base-to-tip as in other eukaryotes. Thousands of dynein motor proteins coordinate their activity to drive ciliary bending wave propagation. Dynein-associated light and intermediate chains regulate the biophysical mechanisms of axonemal dynein. Tctex-type outer arm dynein light chain 2 (LC2) regulates flagellar bending wave propagation direction, amplitude, and frequency in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. However, the role of Tctex-type light chains in regulating T. brucei motility is unknown. Here, we used a combination of bioinformatics, in-situ molecular tagging, and immunofluorescence microscopy to identify a Tctex-type light chain in the procyclic form of T. brucei (TbLC2). We knocked down TbLC2 expression using RNAi in both wild-type and FLAM3, a flagellar attachment zone protein, knockdown cells and quantified TbLC2's effects on trypanosome cell biology and biophysics. We found that TbLC2 knockdown reduced the directional persistence of trypanosome cell swimming, induced an asymmetric ciliary bending waveform, modulated the bias between the base-to-tip and tip-to-base beating modes, and increased the beating frequency. Together, our findings are consistent with a model of TbLC2 as a down-regulator of axonemal dynein activity that stabilizes the forward tip-to-base beating ciliary waveform characteristic of trypanosome cells. Our work sheds light on axonemal dynein regulation mechanisms that contribute to pathogenic kinetoplastids' unique tip-to-base ciliary beating nature and how those mechanisms underlie dynein-driven ciliary motility more generally.

Dynamic stability of salt stable cowpea chlorotic mottle virus capsid protein dimers and pentamers of dimers

Intermediates of the self-assembly process of the salt stable cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (ss-CCMV) capsid can be modelled atomistically on realistic computational timescales either by studying oligomers in equilibrium or by focusing on their dissociation instead of their association. Our previous studies showed that among the three possible dimer interfaces in the icosahedral capsid, two are thermodynamically relevant for capsid formation. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the relative structural stabilities of the three different ss-CCMV dimers and to find and understand the conditions that lead to their dissociation. Long timescale molecular dynamics simulations at 300 K of the various dimers and of the pentamer of dimers underscore the importance of large contact surfaces on stabilizing the capsid subunits within an oligomer. Simulations in implicit solvent show that at higher temperature (350 K), the N-terminal tails of the protein units act as tethers, delaying dissociation for all but the most stable interface. The pentamer of dimers is also found to be stable on long timescales at 300 K, with an inherent flexibility of the outer protein chains.

Novel strategy for color-controllable Pickering emulsion: Location control of pigments at different phase

To develop a novel strategy for preparing color-controllable emulsion by controlling pigments spatial location, the stable Pickering emulsion (O/W) was firstly established by using zein-chitosan nanoparticles (ZCNPs) as outer layer and medium chain triglyceride as inner phase. Three fat-soluble pigments (FSPs), curcumin, oil red and oil blue, were introduced into this emulsion system by controlling their location (in outer layer or inner phase). The physical properties, qualitative and quantitative color analysis of the emulsion were investigated by encapsulation efficiency, confocal laser scanning microscope and values of L*a*b*. The loading efficiency of ZCNPs to FSPs maintained at 87.6%–89.3%, and had 95% of oil encapsulation efficiency. Different from the blending coloring strategy, the emulsions formed in this paper showed better chroma (based on L*a*b* values) with even fewer additive pigments amount. Under the same amount of pigment, the saturation of the emulsion (FSPs in outer layer) could increase by 81.5%. This study might provide a new color control strategy for complex food systems. • The structure of Pickering emulsion was defined as outer layer or inner phase. • ZCNPs had a higher loading efficiency for the three FSPs. • Pickering emulsion stabilized by ZCNPs was stable. • Color could be adjusted by changing the location of pigments in the emulsion. • The emulsion color was more susceptible to outer layer.

2D Outer Side Chain‐Incorporated Y Acceptors for Highly Efficient Organic Solar Cells with Nonhalogenated Solvent and Annealing‐Free Process

To fabricate high‐performance organic solar cells (OSCs) by green solvent processing, it is essential to control the aggregation behavior and processability of constituent small‐molecule acceptors (SMAs). Herein, a series of SMAs (A1–A4) with enhanced aggregation behavior and processability is developed by replacing the linear alkyl outer side chains of BTP‐eC9 with 2D functional groups. The PM6:A1 SMA blend exhibits appropriate crystallinity, favorable blend morphology, superior electrical properties, and affords an OSC with a high power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 16.8%. Importantly, the OSC is fabricated using a nonhalogenated solvent (ortho‐xylene), annealing‐free process. In contrast, the reference PM6:BTP‐eC9‐based OSC exhibits a lower PCE of 15.3%. Structural analyses reveal that the 2D outer side chains of A1 induce steric hindrance between its dithienothiophen[3,2‐b]‐pyrrolobenzothiadiazole (BTP) core and the 2‐(3‐oxo‐2,3‐dihydroinden‐1‐ylidene)malononitrile end groups, optimizing its molecular planarity and aggregation property. It is further found that the SMAs with chlorinated IC end groups afford OSCs with higher PCEs than SMAs with fluorinated end groups.

18.55% Efficiency Polymer Solar Cells Based on a Small Molecule Acceptor with Alkylthienyl Outer Side Chains and a Low-Cost Polymer Donor PTQ10

18.55% Efficiency Polymer Solar Cells Based on a Small Molecule Acceptor with Alkylthienyl Outer Side Chains and a Low-Cost Polymer Donor PTQ10

Design and analysis of a hexagon rolling mechanism with a center-arranged actuator

This paper proposes a novel hexagon rolling mechanism, which is composed of inner multiple crank links and outer six-bar chain, driven by a center-arranged actuator (CAA). The rolling locomotion of the hexagon rolling mechanism with single degree of freedom (DOF) is realized by the coupling motion of inner and outer mechanisms, and the locomotion direction is determined by the full rotational direction of CAA. The coupling motion is realized through the combinations in multiple crank links of inner mechanism and the connections between the outer and inner mechanisms, and the design process is carried out. The trajectories of vertices and center of mass (CM) are analyzed to realize the continuity of the coupling motion. By setting the CM as coordinate origin and the overconstrained sliders as equivalent frame, the coupling motion is matched and parameters of links are preliminary designed without singular positions. Meanwhile, by setting supporting links as equivalent frame alternately, the fluctuation of the CM is improved based on the parameters modification. Finally, the functionality of the rolling mechanism is verified by a manufactured prototype.

Transition in the Glassy Dynamics of Melts of Acid-Hydrolyzed Phytoglycogen Nanoparticles.

The deformability, responsiveness, and tunability of soft nanoparticles (NPs) offer unique opportunities to learn about their complex properties and the interactions between particles. In the present study, we provide new insights into the physical properties of phytoglycogen (PG) NPs, which are soft, compact particles with a dendritic architecture that are produced in the kernels of sweet corn. In particular, we study PG NPs modified using acid hydrolysis, which not only reduces their diameter but also alters their stiffness, internal structure, and the interactions between particles in aqueous dispersions. We used steady shear rheology to determine the dependence of the relative zero-shear viscosity ηr of aqueous dispersions of acid-hydrolyzed PG NPs on the effective volume fraction ϕeff, which indicated a reduction in stiffness of the particles relative to that of native PG NPs. We quantified this difference by analyzing the nature of the colloidal glasses formed at high ϕeff. We measured a smaller value of the fragility index m for acid-hydrolyzed PG NP glasses than that for native PG NP glasses, indicating that acid-hydrolyzed PG NPs form stronger glasses and are therefore softer than native PG NPs. Unlike the native PG NPs, we observed a distinctive change in the character of the glass transition of the acid-hydrolyzed PG NPs as ϕeff was increased above ϕeff∼1: a crossover in the dependence of ηr on ϕeff from Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann behavior to a more gradual, Arrhenius-like behavior. By expressing the steady shear and oscillatory rheology data in terms of generalized Péclet numbers, we obtained collapse of the data onto master curves. We interpret this result in terms of the acid-hydrolyzed PG NPs predominantly interpenetrating neighboring particles at large ϕeff, for which fluctuations of the outer chains enhance the mobility of the particles and make α-relaxation times τα experimentally accessible.

The Mnn10/Anp1-dependent N-linked outer chain glycan is dispensable for Candida albicans cell wall integrity.

Candida albicans cell wall glycoproteins, and in particular their mannose-rich glycans, are important for maintaining cellular integrity as well as host recognition, adhesion, and immunomodulation. The asparagine (N)-linked mannose outer chain of these glycoproteins is produced by Golgi mannosyltransferases (MTases). The outer chain is composed of a linear backbone of ∼50 α1,6-linked mannoses, which acts as a scaffold for addition of ∼150 or more mannoses in other linkages. Here, we describe the characterization of C. albicans OCH1, MNN9, VAN1, ANP1, MNN10, and MNN11, which encode the conserved Golgi MTases that sequentially catalyze the α1,6 mannose outer chain backbone. Candida albicans och1Δ/Δ, mnn9Δ/Δ, and van1Δ/Δ mutants block the earliest steps of backbone synthesis and like their Saccharomyces cerevisiae counterparts, have severe cell wall and growth phenotypes. Unexpectedly, and in stark contrast to S. cerevisiae, loss of Anp1, Mnn10, or Mnn11, which together synthesize most of the backbone, have no obvious deleterious phenotypes. These mutants were unaffected in cell morphology, growth, drug sensitivities, hyphal formation, and macrophage recognition. Analyses of secreted glycosylation reporters demonstrated that anp1Δ/Δ, mnn10Δ/Δ, and mnn11Δ/Δ strains accumulate glycoproteins with severely truncated N-glycan chains. This hypo-mannosylation did not elicit increased chitin deposition in the cell wall, which in other yeast and fungi is a key compensatory response to cell wall integrity breaches. Thus, C. albicans has evolved an alternate mechanism to adapt to cell wall weakness when N-linked mannan levels are reduced.

The effect of alkyl substitution position of thienyl outer side chains on photovoltaic performance of A–DA′D–A type acceptors

Two isomeric A–DA′D–A type SMAs o-TEH and m-TEH were designed and synthesized, and the PCE of the OSC based on PBQ6:m-TEH reached 18.51%.

Overexpression of cell-wall GPI-anchored proteins restores cell growth of N-glycosylation-defective och1 mutants in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

The glycoproteins of yeast contain a large outer chain on N-linked oligosaccharides; therefore, yeast is not suitable for producing therapeutic glycoproteins for human use. Using a deletion mutant strain of α1,6-mannosyltransferase (och1Δ), we previously produced humanized N-glycans in fission yeast; however, the Schizosaccharomyces pombe och1Δ cells displayed a growth delay even during vegetative growth, resulting in reduced productivity of heterologous proteins. To overcome this problem, here we performed a genome-wide screen for genes that would suppress the growth defect of temperature-sensitive och1Δ cells. Using a genomic library coupled with screening of 18,000 transformants, we identified two genes (pwp1+, SPBC1E8.05), both encoding GPI-anchored proteins, that increased the growth rate of och1Δ cells, lacking the outer chain. We further showed that a high copy number of the genes was needed to improve the growth rate. Mutational analysis of Pwp1p revealed that the GPI-anchored region of Pwp1p is important in attenuating the growth defect. Analysis of disruptants of pwp1+ and SPBC1E8.05 showed that neither gene was essential for cell viability; however, both mutants were sensitive β-glucanase, suggesting that Pwp1p and the protein encoded by SPBC1E8.05 non-enzymatically support β-glucan on the cell-surface of S. pombe. Collectively, our work not only sheds light on the functional relationships between GPI-anchored proteins and N-linked oligosaccharides of glycoproteins in S. pombe, but also supports the application of S. pombe to the production of human glycoprotein. KEY POINTS: • We screened for genes that suppress the growth defect of fission yeast och1Δ cells. • Appropriate expression of GPI-anchored proteins alleviates the growth delay of och1Δ cells. • The GPI-anchor domain of Pwp1p is important for suppressing the growth defect of och1Δ cells.

Effect of Internal Architecture on the Assembly of Soft Particles at Fluid Interfaces.

Monolayers of soft colloidal particles confined at fluid interfaces are at the core of a broad range of technological processes, from the stabilization of responsive foams and emulsions to advanced lithographic techniques. However, establishing a fundamental relation between their internal architecture, which is controlled during synthesis, and their structural and mechanical properties upon interfacial confinement remains an elusive task. To address this open issue, which defines the monolayer’s properties, we synthesize core–shell microgels, whose soft core can be chemically degraded in a controlled fashion. This strategy allows us to obtain a series of particles ranging from analogues of standard batch-synthesized microgels to completely hollow ones after total core removal. Combined experimental and numerical results show that our hollow particles have a thin and deformable shell, leading to a temperature-responsive collapse of the internal cavity and a complete flattening after adsorption at a fluid interface. Mechanical characterization shows that a critical degree of core removal is required to obtain soft disk-like particles at an oil–water interface, which present a distinct response to compression. At low packing fractions, the mechanical response of the monolayer is dominated by the outer polymer chains forming a corona surrounding the particles within the interfacial plane, regardless of the presence of a core. By contrast, at high compression, the absence of a core enables the particles to deform in the direction orthogonal to the interface and to be continuously compressed without altering the monolayer structure. These findings show how fine, single-particle architectural control during synthesis can be engineered to determine the interfacial behavior of microgels, enabling one to link particle conformation with the resulting material properties.

Reaching out in anticipation: bacterial membrane extensions represent a permanent investment in polysaccharide sensing and utilization.

Outer membrane extensions are common in many marine bacteria. However, the function of these surface enlargements or extracellular compartments is poorly understood. Using a combined approach of microscopy and subproteome analyses, we therefore examined Pseudoalteromonas distincta ANT/505, an Antarctic polysaccharide degrading gamma-proteobacterium. P. distincta produced outer membrane vesicles (MV) and vesicle chains (VC) on polysaccharide and non-polysaccharide carbon sources during the exponential and stationary growth phase. Surface structures of carbohydrate-grown cells were equipped with increased levels of highly substrate-specific proteins. At the same time, proteins encoded in all other polysaccharide degradation-related genomic regions were also detected in MV and VC samples under all growth conditions, indicating a basal expression. In addition, two alkaline phosphatases were highly abundant under non-limiting phosphate conditions. Surface structures may thus allow rapid sensing and fast responses in nutritionally deprived environments. It may also facilitate efficient carbohydrate processing and reduce loss of substrates and enzymes by diffusion as important adaptions to the aquatic ecosystem.

Rheology of Conjugated Polymers with Bulky and Flexible Side Chains

We report on the linear viscoelasticity of dialkylfluorene- and dialkoxybenzene-based viscoelastic conjugated polymers at a wide temperature range. Three dynamic transition temperatures are probed on the rheological spectrum, which are ascribed to the backbone (Tg,bb), the inner side chain (Tsc,inner), and the outer side chain (Tsc,outer), respectively. For our polymers that contain long branched side chains, their Tg,bb values deviate from the prediction based on atomic mobility. Tsc,outer is independent of chemical structures, while Tsc,inner is in between Tg,bb and Tsc,outer. A universal William–Landel–Ferry fitting could describe the dynamic temperature dependence of backbones for different polymers at an iso-free-volume state, while the dynamics of side chains exhibit two steps of Arrhenius behavior, corresponding to motions of inner and outer side chains, respectively. The activation energy of inner side chains monotonically decreases with the increasing side chain fraction, while that of outer side chains is independent of chemical structures.

SYNTHESIS OF A NOVEL FIVE-DEGREES–OF-FREEDOM PARALLEL KINEMATIC MANIPULATOR

This paper presents the design and analysis of a novel five degrees-of- freedom (DOF) parallel kinematic manipulator (PKM) for part-handling, sorting, general positioning, and robotic machining applications. The 2- R(Pa-IQ)RR, R(Pa-IQ)R manipulator has two rotational DOFs, one parasitic rotation, and three translational DOFs. In comparison with other 5- and 6- DOF PKMs, this PKM possesses three pairs of coplanar legs that contain nested kinematic chains, and it makes exclusive use of revolute and prismatic joints. The inverse kinematic analysis is a novel extension of the geometric (vector) method with the analysis of inner and outer kinematic chains. The forward kinematic analysis was solved using the Newton Raphson (NR) method. The results of the forward and inverse kinematic analyses were validated with SolidWorks ® and MATLAB ® simulations.

Side‐Chain Engineering on Y‐Series Acceptors with Chlorinated End Groups Enables High‐Performance Organic Solar Cells

AbstractChemical modifications of non‐fullerene acceptors (NFAs) play vital roles in the development of high efficiency organic solar cells (OSCs). In this work, on the basis of the previously reported molecule named Y6‐1O, chlorination and inner side‐chain engineering are adopted to endow the corresponding devices with higher open‐circuit voltage (VOC) and short‐circuit current density (JSC) as well as good morphology for high fill factor (FF). As a result, the molecule named BTP1O‐4Cl‐C12 can help achieve a higher power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 17.1% than that of Y6‐1O (16.1%). Furthermore, the following comparisons between BTP1O‐4Cl‐C12 and the two symmetric acceptors named BTP2O‐4Cl‐C12 and BTP‐4Cl‐C12 demonstrate the effect of asymmetric alkoxy substitution on the outer side chains, which not only achieves a balance between VOC and JSC, but also help obtain appropriate morphology for efficient charge dissociation and suppressed charge recombination. Therefore, the asymmetric BTP1O‐4Cl‐C12 can achieve a higher PCE compared to the symmetric BTP2O‐4Cl‐C12 and BTP‐4Cl‐C12. The work not only reports an excellent NFA for high‐performance OSCs, but also puts forward a series of methods for consecutive chemical modifications on Y‐series acceptors, which can be further applied to boost the PCE of OSCs to a higher level.

Topological nodal chains in optical lattices

Topological nodal rings as the simplest topological nodal lines recently have been extensively studied in optical lattices. However, the realization of complex nodal line structures like nodal chains in this system remains a crucial challenge. Here we propose an experimental scheme to realize and detect topological nodal chains in optical Raman lattices. Specifically, we construct a three-dimensional optical Raman lattice which supports next nearest-neighbor spin-orbit couplings and hosts topological nodal chains in its energy spectra. Interestingly, the realized nodal chains are protected by mirror symmetry and could be tuned into a large variety of shapes, including the inner and outer nodal chains. We also demonstrate that the shapes of the nodal chains could be detected by measuring spin polarizations. Our study opens up the possibility of exploring topological nodal-chain semimetal phases in optical lattices.

Cluster and building block structure of amylopectin from waxy maize starch

AbstractBackground and objectivesThe aim of this study was to determine the fine structure of amylopectin of waxy maize starch, which has been widely used in industry for producing modified starch, such as the esterification with octenyl succinic anhydride.FindingsWaxy maize starch was hydrolyzed with α‐amylase for 3.5 hr to obtain structural clusters. The clusters were further treated with phosphorylase α and β‐amylase in order to remove all the outer chains. The internal structure of waxy maize starch was determined by high‐performance anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detector (HPAEC–PAD). Results showed that one single cluster contained ~ 10.9 chains, on average, and the density of branching was 15.7. The ϕ,β‐limit dextrin of clusters from waxy maize starch were treated with a concentrated solution of α‐amylase to produce small and tightly branched units, and six different structural groups were defined. The average DP of branched building blocks was 10.9, and the number of chains for building block units was 2.8.Significance and noveltyThe fine structure of waxy maize starch, including the structural characteristic of cluster and building block, will provide some basic structural information for the reason why the functional properties of the starch derivatives achieved by the specific starch is superior to others.

Scalar nanostructure of the Candida albicans cell wall; a molecular, cellular and ultrastructural analysis and interpretation

Despite the importance of fungal cell walls as the principle determinant of fungal morphology and the defining element determining fungal interactions with other cells, few scalar models have been developed that reconcile chemical and microscopic attributes of its structure. The cell wall of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans is comprised of an amorphous inner skeletal layer of β(1,3)- and β(1,6)-glucan and chitin and an outer fibrillar layer thought to be dominated by highly mannosylated cell wall proteins. The architecture of these two layers can be resolved at the electron microscopy level, but the visualised structure of the wall has not yet been defined precisely in chemical terms. We have therefore examined the precise structure, location and molecular sizes of the cell wall components using transmission electron microscopy and tomography and tested predictions of the cell wall models using mutants and agents that perturb the normal cell wall structure. We demonstrate that the fibrils are comprised of a frond of N-linked outer chain mannans linked to a basal layer of GPI-proteins concentrated in the mid-wall region and that the non-elastic chitin microfibrils are cantilevered with sufficient lengths of non-fibrillar chitin and/or β-glucan to enable the chitin-glucan cage to flex, e.g. during morphogenesis and osmotic swelling. We present the first three-dimensional nano-scalar model of the C. albicans cell wall which can be used to test hypotheses relating to the structure–function relationships that underpin the pathobiology of this fungal pathogen.