Outer Carpathians Research Articles

Kinematic evolution of the Pieniny Klippen Belt in Cenozoic (Ukrainian Carpathians)

The data on surface, subsurface and deep structure of the Pieniny Klippen Belt (PKB) have been summarized and new results of its geological-structural and fault kinematic studies within the Ukrainian part of the Eastern Carpathians have been presented. In its contemporary appearance as a narrow strongly tectonized zone between the Outer Carpathians and Trans-Carpathian trough PKB was formed in Oligocene—Miocene in the place of ancient ocean. On the surface it is situated within the rootless Pieniny nappe and in the deep it is a steeply dipping deformation zone which developed under compression, simple dextral strike-slip, transtension and transpression. Mesostructures of horizontal shortening and vertical elongation, thrusts and thrust-related folds as well as structures of lateral extrusion — dextral strike-slip along sub-meridional slicken-sides correspond to SW—NE 220° trending compression and correlate with the stage of Alcapa microplate progression in NE direction in Oligocene—Early Miocene. In Early Miocene as a result of counter-clockwork rotation of Alcapa dextral strike-slip deformation is concentrated in boundary zone between Alcapa and accretionary prism of Ukrainian Flysch Carpathians. The stress fields of strike-slip type with orientation of compression axis SE 165—SW 215° and its “rotation” in a zone of simple shear correspond to this stage. Present deformation regime is characterized as transpressure with SW—NE orientation of compression axis.

Genetic correlation of source rocks and natural gas in the Polish Outer Carpathians and Paleozoic–Mesozoic basement east of Kraków (southern Poland)

Natural gas-source rock correlations in the Polish Outer Carpathians and Paleozoic–Mesozoic basement in the Kraków–Brzesko–Nowy Sącz area (southern Poland) have been established. In the Dukla and Sub-Silesian units, mixed kerogen Type-II/III or III/II occurs. The organic matter is immature or low-mature. The Oligocene Menilite beds of the Silesian Unit are rich in TOC and contain gas-prone Type III kerogen of low maturity. In the Paleozoic–Mesozoic basement, the TOC content and residual hydrocarbon potential vary in the Middle and Upper Devonian strata, Mississippian carbonate and clastic facies and Middle Jurassic strata. The Paleozoic strata are capable of thermogenic hydrocarbon generation, while organic matter in the Middle Jurassic rocks is generally immature. Gaseous hydrocarbons accumulated both in the Silesian and Dukla units of the Polish Outer Carpathians and in the Mesozoic basement are genetically related to thermogenic and microbial processes. The Outer Carpathian natural gas was generated mainly from the Type-II/III kerogen of the Oligocene Menilite beds. The thermogenic gases from the Mesozoic basement were generated from Devonian and Mississippian (carbonate) Type-II and mixed II/III kerogens and probably from Silurian/Ordovician Type-II kerogen and Middle Jurassic Type-III/II kerogen occurring at more than 7 km depth. Microbial methane migrated into the Outer Carpathian flysch succession from the Miocene strata of the Carpathian Foredeep.

Neogene palaeogeography and basin evolution of the Western Carpathians, Northern Pannonian domain and adjoining areas

The data on the Neogene geodynamics, palaeogeography, and basin evolution of the Western Carpathians, Northern Pannonian domain and adjoining areas (ALCAPA Mega-unit) are summarized, re-evaluated, supplemented, and newly interpreted. The proposed concept is illustrated by a series of palinspastic and palaeotopographic maps. The Miocene development of the Outer Carpathians reflects the vanishing subduction of the residual oceanic and/or thinned continental crust. A compression perpendicular to the front of the orogenic system led to the closing of residual flysch troughs and to accretionary wedge growth, as well as to the development of a foredeep on the margin of the European Platform. Docking of the Outer Western Carpathians accretionary wedge, together with the Central Western Carpathians and Northern Pannonian domain, was accompanied by stretching of the overriding microplate. An orogen parallel and perpendicular extension was associated with the opening and subsidence of the Early and Middle Miocene hinterland (back-arc) basin system that compensated counter-clockwise rotations of the individual crustal fragments of ALCAPA. The Late Miocene development relates to the opening of the Pannonian Basin System. This process was coupled with common stretching of both ALCAPA and Tisza-Dacia Mega-units due to the pull exerted by subduction rollback in front of the Eastern Carpathians. The filling up of the hinterland basin system was associated with thermal subsidence and was followed by the Pliocene tectonic inversion and consequent erosion of the basin system margins, as well as part of the interior.

Morphometric and geological conditions for sediment accumulation in the Udava River, Outer Carpathians, Slovakia

The accumulation of sediment in river channels is a phenomenon that is not only influenced by the channel morphology, but also by the physical and geographical characteristics and the endogenous and exogenous processes taking place in the catchment. This paper presents an analysis of the impact the changes in lithological conditions have on the morphological and morphometric parameters of the Udava River channel and their relation to the channel accumulation forms representative of the river’s longitudinal profile as well as of its planform. Results document when accumulation forms occur and what is their spatial distribution within the longitudinal and cross-sectional river profiles. More resistant structures created sections with a lower degree of sedimentation, while in depression segments the degree of sedimentation was higher. With the increase in longitudinal slope, the impact of channel width on the average channel bar size increased. Also a difference in the accumulation was observed between the left and right bank which could be possibly explained by the impact of Coriolis force.

Early Paleogene planktic foraminifera in thin-sections – an experiment on isolated specimens from the Fore-Magura Thrust Sheet (Polish Outer Carpathians)

This paper describes results of an experiment aimed mainly at obtaining random thin-sections of isolated specimens of planktic foraminifera determined to a species level. Twenty species of uppermost Paleocene-Middle Eocene planktic foraminifera from pelagic variegated marls of the Fore-Magura Thrust Sheet have been chosen for this experiment. These planktic foraminifera belong to the genera Chiloguembelina , Turborotalia , Acarinina , Morozovella , Muricoglobigerina , Subbotina and Parasubbotina . Their SEM images, stereomicroscope photos of isolated specimens, and the experimental thin-sections along with their systematics and stratigraphic ranges are presented.

Balanced geological cross-section of the outer ukrainian carpathians along the pancake profile

The Outer Ukrainian Carpathians (OUC) are part of the Eastern Carpathians, which is a segment of the European Alpine belt. The OUC is crossed by recently acquired WARR (wideangle reflection and refraction) PANCAKE profile (Starostenko et al., 2013). To study the basin architecture of the OUC along the profile a balanced geological cross-section was onstructed. Reconstruction of the balanced geological cross-section has shown that the present day fold-and-thrust belt of the Outer (Flysch) Carpathians was formed in the Miocene from the deposits of the sedimentary basin∼460km in width. Evolution of the sedimentary basin to the present fold-and-thrust belt 70km in width occurred in two stages, characterized by accelerating the shortening rate of the basin from 11.5km/Ma between∼32 and 22 Ma to 22.5km/Ma between∼22 and 12 Ma. The detachment of the flysch complexes of the OUC occurred on the top of the basement located at a depth of 10−12km. The main phase of Miocene thrusting was followed by significant exhumation and erosion during the period of 12−2 Ma related to isostatic uplift in the OUC, which reached a maximum (up to 7km) in the central nappes (Krosno and Dukla-Chornohora). The collision regime, obviously, followed the subduction one; this could happen approximately at 22 Ma which is evident after changing the shortening rate of the basin.

The impact of extreme rainfall and flash floods on the flood risk management process and geomorphological changes in small Carpathian catchments: a case study of the Kasiniczanka river (Outer Carpathians, Poland)

Short-duration extreme rainfall and flash floods are the major natural hazards in small Carpathian catchments. Quantifying forcing rainfall, hydrological responses and geomorphological impacts is the key to mitigating the negative impacts of flash floods. This article focuses on the hydrometeorological aspects of a flood event, the geomorphological changes of hillslopes and the river valley, in the Kasiniczanka catchment—48 km2 (Outer Carpathians, Poland). Results revealed that the flood in 2014 was generated by 6-h rainstorm with a total of 95.2 mm, and the mean intensity ranging from 7.1 to 31.3 mm h−1. The flood peak ranged from 60 to 171 m3 s−1, and it was approximately two times higher than an 0.1% flood. The unit peak flow ranged between 3.6 and 4.6 m3 s−1 km−2, and the K index (which is non-dimensional measure and allows the comparison of flood magnitudes in catchments of differing size), ranged from 3.9 to 4.1. These two measures revealed that this flood was among the worst, recorded in catchments ranging from 13 to 48 km2 in the Carpathians as a whole. The most significant geomorphological changes were observed in unmanaged channel reaches (the upper and middle parts of the catchment), contrary to lower part, where the river channel was protected by a hydrotechnical infrastructure. Flood analysis enabled the evaluation of the flood risk management process, related to flash floods in small catchments. In this context, some proposals to reduce flood risk level are presented and discussed.

Insights Into Marls From Optical and Back-Scattered Electron Petrography: An Example From the Outer Carpathians (Poland)

Abstract: This paper is a study of grain provenance, depositional processes, and the relationship of those processes to composition and diagenesis of fine-grained rocks, based on high-resolution petrography. The marly successions deposited in siliciclastic flysch and related to the paleotectonics of the northern domain of the Tethys Ocean (Outer Carpathian Basin) were examined. The following marls were studied: Upper Jurassic marls from the Vendryně Formation (Goleszow Marls); Upper Cretaceous Siliceous-Fucoid, Wegierka, Weglowka, Frydek, Jasienica, and Żegocina Marls; Eocene Łącko, Budzow, Zembrzyce, and Leluchow Marls; and Oligocene Sub-Cergowa and Grybow Marls. These marls are products of the redeposition of shelf sediments into deeper parts of the basin. Knowledge of their diagenetic history can contribute to the evaluation of the petroleum potential of the Polish Outer Carpathians. Thin-section analysis by optical and electron back-scattered microscopy (FESEM-BSE) highlights the similarity of all these marls with respect to composition, grain size, sedimentary features, and diagenetic changes. They differ only in the quantitative proportion of constituents, the relative extent of key microfacies, and diagenetic effects. The diagenetic modifications recognized in the rocks studied are characteristic of the processes operating in the sedimentary environment and during burial diagenesis. Thin-section petrography of the marls reveals fine, mostly silt-size siliciclastic material and bioclasts supported by matrix. Siliciclastic particles comprise mostly quartz, micas, feldspars, glauconitic nodules, and lithoclasts. Calcareous and siliceous bioclasts, mostly microfossils (foram and sponge spicules, and a few radiolarians and diatoms) and coccospheres, are variably preserved; they may occur as calcite, silica, and clay pseudomorphs. Additional components include peloids and stringers of brown organic matter. Millimeter-scale fabric analysis provides detailed insight into the processes of transport and deposition. Five microfacies are identified: parallel-laminated, wavy and lenticular-laminated, homogeneous exhibiting preferred orientation of elongated components, bioturbated, and bioclast-bearing. The range of microfacies suggests that the marl sediment was deposited while currents were active. The depositional settings identified range from traction, reworking by bottom currents, supply by nepheloid flow (indistinctly bounded laminae), possible eolian input (laminae a few grains thick), and biogenic reworking of sediments. Back-scattered electron images reveal that the matrix consists of coccolithophorid remains with varying abundances of clay, silica, and carbonate cements. Five varieties of matrix are distinguished: 1) carbonate–clay–silica bearing, 2) carbonate–clay supported, 3) carbonate–silica supported, 4) clay–silica supported, and 5) clay dominated. Clay appears as rosette and lamellar aggregates, silica as nanoquartz (microspheres, clusters, coatings), quartz overgrowths, and occasionally opal CT as lepispheres and aggregates moss-like in appearance, and calcite as overgrown coccoliths, pseudomicrite, micrite, and microspar. Pyrite framboids are present in some samples. Intrabiotic and intergranular cements are developed. Also present are partially dissolved coccolith placoliths, silica- and clay-replaced micarb, and grains similar in appearance to volcanic glass shards that now consist of calcite and quartz. Bioclasts may have been a source for calcite and silica cements. Volcanic glass may have been a source for authigenic silica and clay minerals; this is suggested by the close spatial juxtaposition of silica microspheres and authigenic clay (cauliflower-like aggregates). The authigenic origin of the clay in these marls is also suggested by the presence of overgrown coccoliths because recrystallization of shields is reduced when clay is present, so that the overgrowths must have been formed in an environment where clay minerals were scarce initially. Despite diagenetic changes, the presence of pyroclasts is still recognizable. There are quartz crystal chips, shard-shaped grains, volcanic rock fragments, and minerals (biotite, apatite, zircon). The marls studied could be described as impure fine-grained detrital limestones chalky in type, with evidence of redeposition and possible volcanic-ash input. The marl depositional system within the Outer Carpathian Basin was associated with tectonic movements which initiated chalk-type facies, and this was particularly widespread in the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene.

Stepwise clockwise rotation of the Cenozoic stress field in the Western Carpathians as revealed by kinematic analysis of minor faults in the Manín Unit (western Slovakia)

This study aims at quantitative kinematic analysis of fault-slip data and palaeostress reconstruction of polyphase brittle structures developed in the Manin Unit cropping out in the Middle Vah River Valley of western Slovakia. The Manin Unit neighbours the Pieniny Klippen Belt that follows the boundary between the Paleogene accretionary wedge of the Outer Carpathians and the Cretaceous nappe system of the Central Western Carpathians. After the nappe emplacement during mid-Cretaceous times, the Manin Unit was incorporated into the Pieniny Klippen Belt and attained its complex tectonic style. Based on kinematic analysis of meso-scale faults with slickensides, six (D 1 –D 6 ) brittle deformation stages have been discerned. The relative succession of individual palaeostress states was derived from field structural relationships; their stratigraphic age was estimated primarily by comparison with other published data. Palaeostress analysis in the Manin Unit revealed the existence of six different palaeostress fields acting from the Middle Eocene to the Quaternary. The first three generations of meso-scale brittle structures were formed under a transpressional tectonic regime during the pre-Late Eocene–Early Miocene D 1 –D 3 deformation. Generally, the maximum horizontal stress axis rotated clockwise from a W–E to an approximately N–S direction. Thereafter, a transtensional tectonic regime was characterized by a WNW–ESE to NNW–SSE oriented minimum horizontal stress axis during Middle and Late Miocene D 4 –D 5 deformation. A general extensional tectonic regime influenced the structural evolution of the area in the Pliocene to Quaternary, when a gradual reorientation of the palaeostress field resulted in the development of variable, often reactivated, fault structures.

Petrological features of selected components of the Cergowa sandstones (Outer Carpathians) recorded by scanning electron microscopy – preliminary study

The scanning electron microscope analysis of the Cergowa sandstones brings new data on their petrological features and chemical composition. Previous work in standard petrographic examination, e.g. polarising (PL) or cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy, displayed limited information on grain surface topography and only assumptions to their geochemistry. Both identification and characterisation of minerals are fundamental in the progress of mining and minerals processing systems. Detrital grains of the Cergowa sandstones are bound by calcite and dolomitic cement and commonly corroded by diagenetic fluids, however, in varying degrees, which is illustrated here by feldspar, quartz and dolomite minerals. Dissolution processes of marginal parts of these mineral grains resulted in corrosion, which increased the contact surface between the grains and the cement. The difference in resistance to these processes was observed not only among distinct groups of minerals, but also within the group of feldspars: between K–feldspars and minerals of plagioclase. That combination resulted in exceptionally strong cementation of the Cergowa sandstones, which is expressed by their high hardness and resistance to abrasion, freezing, and thawing. Inherent parameters of sandstones are characterised by their petrographical properties.

The Ropianka Formation of the Bystrica Zone (Magura Nappe, Outer Carpathians): proposal for a new reference section in northwestern Orava

The thin- and medium-bedded, turbiditic deposits that are exposed in the Bystrica Zone of the Magura Nappe in the Slovak Orava region are the subject of this study. On the basis of lithological features as well as age and stratigraphic position, they are assigned to the Ropianka Formation. The very well exposed rocks of this formation, recognized in the Biela Farma profile in the Slovak part of the northwestern Orava region, are compared with analogous deposits in the Polish Orava and the Beskid Wysoki Mountains. Lithological and biostratigraphical documentation of the Ropianka Formation is presented. This documentation allowed the determination of the age of the rocks studied. Abundant and taxonomically diverse foraminiferal assemblages of agglutinated, benthonic and occasional planktonic forms indicate a Middle Paleocene age for the upper part of the Ropianka Fm. A new stratigraphic position for the Szczawina Sandstone, considered to be a member of the Ropianka Fm, is proposed. The lithostratigraphy of the Ropianka Fm in the Magura Nappe in Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic requires further investigation, including the establishment of new type and reference sections. The large outcrop at Biela Farma should be taken into consideration as a potential reference section. Studies of the new sections will lead to a new monographic elaboration of the Ropianka Fm in Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic.

Geology of the Magura Nappe in the Osielec area with emphasis on an Eocene olistostrome with metabasite olistoliths (Outer Carpathians, Poland)

The Magura Nappe in the Polish sector of the Outer Carpathians consists of four tectonic subunits characterized by differing development of facies. From the south to the north, they include the Siary, Raca, Bystrica and Krynica subunits. The sedimentary succession in the Raca Subunit in the vicinity of the village of Osielec is composed of Campanian–Palaeogene flysch deposited in the Magura Basin. In this succession, the Middle Eocene Pasierbiec Sandstone Fm consists of thick-bedded sandstones and conglomerates with occasional intercalations of thin-bedded shale-sandstone flysch. Within the Pasierbiec Sandstone Fm at Osielec there is an olistostrome, rich in pebbles and cobbles of exotic rocks. In addition, large blocks of Neoproterozoic metabasites and boulders of Palaeogene organogenic limestones were found. The discovery of metabasites raised the possibility that the rocks in question could be evidence of supposed oceanic crust in the basement of the Magura sedimentary basin, because of the suggestion that they represent the Alpine orogenic cycle. This concept was abandoned when investigations of the absolute age of the metabasites gave a date of ca. 600 Ma. In the Osielec area, there are two tectonic thrust sheets in the Raca Subunit, namely the Osielczyk Thrust Sheet in the north and the Bystra Thrust Sheet in the south; they are folded and cut by a transverse system of strike-slip and oblique faults. The Osielczyk Thrust Sheet was overthrust northwards on to the Siary Subunit.

Elemental and organic carbon proxies for redox conditions of the Oligocene formations in the Ropa Tectonic Window (Outer Carpathians, Poland): palaeoenvironmental implications

The Oligocene Grybow Succession is recognized as a counterpart of the anoxic Menilite Formation. Its comprehensive geochemical investigations are made in the key sections of the Ropa Tectonic Window (the Grybow Unit, Polish Outer Carpathians). The maceral assemblages, dominated by land-plant liptinite, vitrinite and intertinite, correspond to kerogen types II and III. A Tmax vs. HI diagram shows terrestrial kerogen type II with various additions of type III and algal kerogen type I. A variation in δ 13 C org. (from –25.21 to –27.38‰) may have resulted from variations in the composition of organic matter (the content of terrestrial vs. marine organic matter), controlled by depositional setting (turbidite vs. hemipelagic). The highest TOC contents are associated with an enhanced influx of land-derived organic matter. The redox-sensitive trace elements positively correlate with TOC and TS contents. Redox conditions varied between oxic and anoxic, as was concluded from TOC-TS, V/(V+Ni) and U/Th. The turbidity currents might have ventilated the bottom waters, especially more efficiently in the proximal zone of turbidite sedimentation. Moreover, oxygenated bottom waters may have also affected the concentration of trace metals, owing to migration of the redox interface downward within the sediments.

Facies heterogeneity of a deep-sea depositional lobe complex: case study from the Słonne section of Skole Nappe, Polish Outer Carpathians

This article reports on the first detailed study of the Skole Nappe’s Ropianka Formation in the Slonne outcrop section along river San. Lithological and micropalaeontological similarities indicate that the sedimentary succession correlates with the formation’s Wiar Member of Campanian–late Maastrichtian age. The sedimentary succession, more than 140 m thick, is interpreted as a deep-marine complex of turbiditic depositional lobes and the study reveals its sedimentary anatomy. Six component facies of sediment gravity-flow deposits and their stratigraphic grouping into four facies associations are recognized, with these latter considered to represent deposits of the lobe axial zone, lateral flank zone and featheredge fringe zone, as well as an interlobe outer-fringe zone. Semi-quantitative characterization and comparison of facies associations gives insight into the succession’s sedimentary heterogeneity. Six depositional lobes superimposed upon one another are recognized in the stratigraphic succession, and their pattern of vertical stacking is interpreted in terms of dynamic stratigraphy on the basis of the upward succession of facies associations. The stratigraphic arrangement of facies associations is attributed to autogenic morphodynamic changes within the evolving depositional system, although it cannot be precluded that also eustatic and local tectonic forcing came into play. The case study sheds more light on the sedimentary environment, sediment sourcing system and spatial depositional pattern in the Late Cretaceous Skole Basin, where the aggrading seafloor apparently oscillated around the lysocline depth that could be mid-bathyal at that time.

Environmental stress in the northern Tethys during the Paleogene: a review of foraminiferal and geochemical records from the Polish Outer Carpathians

During the Paleogene, the area of the northern Tethys was controlled by a turbidity system stimulated by diastrophic and geodynamic processes. These factors contributed to the dispersion and rapid oxygenation of organic debris. Its accumulation was a consequence of stagnant bottom water conditions that periodically occurred in the basin. In these periods, intense decomposition intensified by hydrothermal and diagenetic processes was associated with oxygen consumption and the release of greenhouse gases, which led to hypoxia and acidification. These phenomena intensified by thermal and density stratification had a major impact on the structure, evolution and distribution of biota. Stress associated with rapidly changing conditions induced by sedimentary process and upwelling resulted in the dominance of forms that colonized most sediments ( Glomospira, Ammodiscus, Recurvoides, Rzehakina) and surface waters ( Guembelitria, Chiloguembelina, Globanomalina, Globigerina, Cassigerinella, Catapsydrax ). At the time, foraminifera were limited to low-diversified eutrophic assemblages or were mainly replaced by siliceous phytoplankton (radiolarians and diatoms). Geochemical data confirm that environmental crises in the Paleogene basin took place under changing thermal conditions that reflect global events (KTBE, PTME, EEOC and TTE). Thermal stress favouring the formation of certain minerals or rocks occasionally occurred during the Paleocene to Eocene (siderite, phosphates) and dominated in the Early Oligocene (silica).

Microencruster-microbial framework and synsedimentary cements in the Štramberk Limestone (Carpathians, Czech Republic): Insights into reef zonation

The Stramberk Limestone (Tithonian–lower Berriasian) was developed on a northerly located, isolated intra-Tethyan carbonate platform. It is composed of various facies that can be observed in olistoliths and blocks embedded in the Cretaceous flysch of the Outer Carpathians in Moravia (Czech Republic). Corals, microbialites, microencrusters and synsedimentary cements contributed on various scales to the reef framework. The importance of corals and some microencrusters to the formation of the Stramberk reef complex is well recognized, while other components received less attention in previous studies. Two end members of boundstone types are described from the Kotouc Quarry, near Stramberk. Boundstone type A is dominated by phaceloid (branching-type) corals, encrusted by microbialites and microencrusters, in particular photophile species (“ Lithocodium-Bacinella”, Koskinobullina socialis Cherchi et Schroeder, Iberopora bodeuri Granier et Berthou). Boundstone type B is composed of microencrusters, microbialites and synsedimentary isopachous fibrous cements, while corals are absent or subordinate. Microencrusters [ Crescentiella morronensis (Crescenti) , Labes atramentosa Eliasova , Perturbatacrusta leini Schlagintweit et Gawlick , Radiomura cautica Senowbari-Daryan et Schafer , thin encrusting calcified sponges] are main biotic components of the microencruster-cement boundstone. Some identified microencrusters are known only or mostly from intra-Tethyan carbonate platforms. Except for C. morronensis, other common microencrusters in the coral-microbial boundstone (type A) are rare in the microencruster-cement boundstone (type B). The depositional setting of boundstone type A corresponds to a low-energy environment of an inner platform. Boundstone type B, until now not recognized in the Stramberk Limestone, was developed in a high-energy, upper fore-reef slope environment. Other important facies in the Kotouc Quarry are reef-derived breccias: matrix-supported breccia and clast-supported breccia with radiaxial-fibrous cement (showing some similarities to Triassic “evinosponges” cement), interpreted as being dominantly synsedimentary (pre-burial). The preliminary studies by the present authors, supported by observations under cathodoluminescence, highlight the significance of synsedimentary cementation for the formation of a boundstone framework (type B) and the stabilization of fore-reef, slope deposits.

Organic-matter vitrinite reflectance variability in the Outer Carpathians, Poland: relationship to tectonic evolution

Random vitrinite reflectance of allochthonous plant material varies throughout all the flysch sedimentary units of the Outer Western Carpathians. The vitrinite reflectance of coalified phytogenic matter is variable even within the same lithostratigraphic unit. There is no clear relationship between random vitrinite reflectance and stratigraphy (age of particular strata) within surface samples. The typical pattern of increasing random reflectance with depth in boreholes is unsettled by R r o “jumps” which occur within folds and overthrusts. However, this study revealed a trend of increasing random vitrinite reflectance from north to south in the area of the Magura Unit. A compressional regime involving phases of uplift and burial, varying from place to place in the flysch basin, was the main factor influencing coalification. The initial maturity of organic matter transported to the marine environment was a secondary factor. A degree of coalification had occurred in the flysch sediments prior to the main stage of fold-and-thrust movements associated with the phase of maximum tectonic subsidence at the end of the Eocene. It is generally assumed that coalified plant material dispersed in sedimentary rocks experienced the same physical and chemical changes as those in larger accumulations of coal. Coalification of phytogenic material coeval with flysch in the Outer Carpathians corresponds to the interval from sub-bituminous to low-medium-rank bituminous coal.

Analysis of land use in landslide affected areas along the Łososina Dolna Commune, the Outer Carpathians, Poland

ABSTRACTLand use of landslides is still a poorly investigated problem. Landslides cannot be regarded as areas unsuitable for use since they occupy a significantly large surface. The Łososina Dolna municipality in the Outer Carpathians is characterized by a very large number of landslides (16% of the total area, about 500 landslides). Land-cover analysis of this agricultural and forest municipality showed a relatively similar structure of land-cover types on areas affected and unaffected by landslides. Six categories of land cover: forest, woodland, agricultural fields, meadows, orchards and built-up areas occupy in total 98% of landslides and 89% of the municipality. On landslides forests had an 11% higher and agricultural fields a 3% lower share in land cover compared to the whole municipality area. The shares of other types of land cover, such as built-up areas, orchards, and shrubs, were very similar, with not more than a 1% difference. This indicates that despite the occurrence of landslides, these areas can still be used for economic purposes, and on sites under extensive management (e.g. meadows and pastures) landslides may cause no land-use changes.

BRINE SPRINGS OF TYRAWA SOLNA WITHIN THE SKOLE UNIT OF THE OUTER CARPATHIANS

Brines, or in other words chloride waters with the TDS content exceeding 35g/dm3, have been found and documented in the Outer Carpathians in many wells drilled during prospecting for oil and gas. Such waters are associated with all the tectonic units of the Outer Carpathians and their basement. In the Carpathians the brines occur only in four springs: two of them are located within the Magura Unit in Sól near Żywiec, and two others in Tyrawa Solna near Sanok within the Skole Unit. The genesis of the Carpathian brines is much complicated. They represent diagenetic waters (synsedimentary, paleoinfiltrational, dehydrative ones), i.e., primary waters altered by diagenetic processes and mixed in various proportions with infiltration waters. The brine springs in Tyrawa Solna and Sól are of important historic aspect as they were used for salt making. This fact is also proved by the names of the localities in which they occur.

OUTLINE OF METALLOGENY OF THE POLISH CARPATHIANS – ORE DEPOSIT MODELS AND THE POSSIBILITY OF DISCOVERY HIDDEN ORE DEPOSITS

There are numerous manifestations of ore mineralization in the Polish part of the Carpathians. In the past there were episodes of mining activity too. Iron ores were mined in Tatra Mountains and Outer Carpathians) as well as a small scale exploitation of polymetallic lodes was undertaken (Tatra, Pieniny). Currently there is a lack documented deposits of metallic ores in this area. Former deposits were of small size, in addition, often significantly exhausted and did not meet current quality requirements. The last exploration works for ore deposits were carried out in the twentieth century, especially in the period after World War II. However, but they have not led to discovery of new deposits. The increasing demand for metals and the development of technologies allowing the use of ore with low levels of metals and profitable exploitation of small “hidden” deposits gives rise to reconsider the possibility of occurrence of ore deposits in the Carpathians. This paper focuses on two major topics. The first one is a discussion and analysis of available source materials and data on the old deposits and identified occurrences of ore mineralization. An attempt their interpretation in relation to the contemporary models of deposits was made. The current models geotectonic construction of the Carpathians and their development, was taken into account. The second topic, based on the results presented analyzes and thoughts, focuses to select some areas, which are prospective for the occurrence of ore deposits, especially deposits located at greater depths than previously sought. In these areas (the Bystre thrust, the area from Krynica to Wysowa as well as the zone with andesite occurrences in the Pieniny Klippen Belt) it is recommended to perform exploration, both in terms of their deep geological conditions as well as some geochemical surveys, using modern research methods.