Outdoor Floor Research Articles

An Algorithm for Generating Outdoor Floor Plans and 3D Models of Rural Houses Based on Backpack LiDAR.

As the Rural Revitalization Strategy continues to progress, there is an increasing demand for the digitization of rural houses, roads, and roadside trees. Given the characteristics of rural areas, such as narrow roads, high building density, and low-rise buildings, the precise and automated generation of outdoor floor plans and 3D models for rural areas is the core research issue of this paper. The specific research content is as follows: Using the point cloud data of the outer walls of rural houses collected by backpack LiDAR as the data source, this paper proposes an algorithm for drawing outdoor floor plans based on the topological relationship of sliced and rasterized wall point clouds. This algorithm aims to meet the needs of periodically updating large-scale rural house floor plans. By comparing the coordinates of house corner points measured with RTK, it is verified that the floor plans drawn by this algorithm can meet the accuracy requirements of 1:1000 topographic maps. Additionally, based on the generated outdoor floor plans, this paper proposes an algorithm for quickly generating outdoor 3D models of rural houses using the height information of wall point clouds. This algorithm can quickly generate outdoor 3D models of rural houses by longitudinally stretching the floor plans, meeting the requirements for 3D models in spatial analyses such as lighting and inundation. By measuring the distance from the wall point clouds to the 3D models and conducting statistical analysis, results show that the distances are concentrated between -0.1 m and 0.1 m. The 3D model generated by the method proposed in this paper can be used as one of the basic data for real 3D construction.

Granulated rubber in playgrounds and sports fields: A potential source of atmospheric plastic-related contaminants and plastic additives after runoff events

The use of “crumb rubber” coming from recycling materials in outdoor floors like playgrounds has been a frequent practice during the last years. However, these surfaces are object of abrasion and weathering being a potential source of micro and nanoplastics (MNPLs) to the atmosphere and a potential source of human exposure to them. Our main goal has been to expose different crumb rubber materials to summer weathering effects. The released inhalable fractions were sampled for two months with passive samplers and the composition of MNPLs and plastic additives (organic and inorganic) were evaluated. The ecotoxicological effects of leached materials emulating runoff events was evaluated in freshwater micro crustacean Daphnia magna and the green algae Chlorella vulgaris. The analysis of MNPLs showed the presence of polyethylene, polypropylene, polybutadiene, polysiloxanes and polybutylene at concentrations up to 30,426 ng/m3. In the same fraction, we also identified up to 56 plastic additives, including antioxidants, pigments, copolymers, flame retardants, fungicides, lubricants, plasticizers, UV filters and metal ions. Finally, runoff ecotoxicological effects on D. magna and C. vulgaris showed that leached compounds, either from virgin or aged material, would be toxicants for exposed organisms although at concentrations much higher than those expected to be released to the media.

Multifunctional bamboo-based fiber composites fabricated by assembling 3D network structures of bamboo and spatial distribution of silver nanoparticles

Bamboo-based composites have been commonly used in engineering applications as a renewable carbon recycling material. Despite its prevalent use, bamboo possesses inherent drawbacks, including flammability, moisture absorption, and susceptibility to microbial corrosion, significantly diminishing the service life of the composites as outdoor materials. Hence, a straightforward synthesis strategy was used to prepare multifunctional bamboo-based fiber composites (BFCs). This involved constructing a three-dimensional (3D) network interface within the bamboo via the combination of mechanical and chemical pretreatments, including alkali treatment, in-situ reduction, impregnation, lamination, and hot pressing. The obtained dense structure, together with the successful incorporation of functional AgNPs, enables the composites to exhibit outstanding mechanical properties (328 MPa cm3 g−1 of tensile specific strength). Moreover, the bamboo-based composite shows good flame retardancy (self-extinguishing within 5 s after ignition), improved thermal conductivity (0.258 W m−1 K−1), a self-cleaning ability, and commendable antibacterial activity against two common pathogenic bacterial (E. coli and S. aureus). This versatile bamboo-based fiber composite material holds promise for diverse outdoor applications, including roofs, wall panels, outdoor flooring, etc.

Structural characteristics and physicomechanical properties of bamboo scrimber composite during natural weathering

Bamboo-based composite materials used outdoors are exposed to diverse natural climates, necessitating an understanding of their surface, physical, and mechanical properties for long-term use. This study evaluated changes in chemical composition, surface color, microstructure, and physicomechanical attributes of bamboo scrimber composite (BSC) manufactured from heat-treated moso bamboo bundles and phenol formaldehyde resin. Over two years of weathering, photodegradation affects bamboo and phenol formaldehyde resin, especially lignin, causing surface discoloration and cracking. Initial weathering stages reduced the width swelling rate, thickness swelling rate, and shear strength of BSC. Despite this, two-year weathered BSC meets the Chinese GB/T 30364-2013 standard for outdoor flooring and exhibits strong weather resistance.

New recycling technologies of demolished materials for sustainable finishes: the project of concrete reuse on site in Tres Cantos, Madrid

The work presented aims to analyse the feasibility of reusing concrete, once demolished from a building in Tres Cantos in Madrid, to manufacture finishing materials for buildings, as well as to design a procedure. The first phase consists of a bibliographic search on the reuse of materials, analysing the techniques adopted so far and the lines of work. The second phase related to the acquisition of data related to the production and recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) at a European level. The third phase consists of the study of recycled aggregates resulting from demolitions or landslides, their treatment process. The fourth and final phase consists of the development of a laboratory test plan to evaluate varied materials for finishing exterior cement pavements with concrete from the demolition of the case study building. There were many conclusions and results of the project. The granulometry of the fine fraction of demolished concrete is suitable to produce non-structural products, such as building finishes and in particular non-driveway outdoor flooring. In terms of flexural and compressive strength, the mechanical behaviour of recycled mixes is lower than that of reference mixes. The recycled mixes show slightly higher capillary absorption capacities than the reference mixes, and the value is higher the greater the percentage of recycled aggregates used (a critical issue which can be resolved by pre-saturating the recycled material).

New recycling technologies of demolished materials for sustainable finishes: the project of concrete reuse on site in Tres Cantos, Madrid

The work presented aims to analyse the feasibility of reusing concrete, once demolished from a building in Tres Cantos in Madrid, to manufacture finishing materials for buildings, as well as to design a procedure. The first phase consists of a bibliographic search on the reuse of materials, analysing the techniques adopted so far and the lines of work. The second phase related to the acquisition of data related to the production and recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) at a European level. The third phase consists of the study of recycled aggregates resulting from demolitions or landslides, their treatment process. The fourth and final phase consists of the development of a laboratory test plan to evaluate varied materials for finishing exterior cement pavements with concrete from the demolition of the case study building. There were many conclusions and results of the project. The granulometry of the fine fraction of demolished concrete is suitable to produce non-structural products, such as building finishes and in particular non-driveway outdoor flooring. In terms of flexural and compressive strength, the mechanical behaviour of recycled mixes is lower than that of reference mixes. The recycled mixes show slightly higher capillary absorption capacities than the reference mixes, and the value is higher the greater the percentage of recycled aggregates used (a critical issue which can be resolved by pre-saturating the recycled material).

Water resistance and mechanical properties of bamboo scrimber composite made from different units of Bambusa chungii as a function of resin content

Bamboo units form basic components of bamboo scrimber composite (BSC), directly affecting the composite’s characteristics and performance. In this study, the water resistance and mechanical properties of BSCs containing different resin percentages were investigated. BSCs were made from bamboo bundles (BSC-I) and oriented bamboo fiber mat (BSC-II) of Bambusa chungii via mechanical decomposition followed by molding recombination. Water resistance of BSCs increased with rising resin content, specifically, with increased thickness swelling rate. BSC-II with a resin content of 25% met the level for high-class outdoor-use bamboo scrimber flooring products. Notably, the resin content and mechanical properties of BSCs were marginally correlated. In addition, BSC-II was more water resistant but had lower mechanical strength compared to BSC-I. The bending strength and modulus of all BSCs were greater than 200 MPa and 22 GPa, respectively. With the selection of appropriate bamboo unit processing methods and resin content for outdoor flooring and building construction, B. chungii is an attractive option for BSC products owing to its properties of water resistance and mechanical strength.

Hardness and contact angle of thermo-treated poplar plywood for bio-building

Abstract: The interest towards poplar cultivation and its wood has recently been growing in Italy, where the use of timber and wood-based materials in construction is increasing as well. Poplar plywood, with a national production of around 270.000 m3 in 2017, is a key product for the Italian wood sector, and currently is destined for several applications as component for furniture and motorhomes. Previous research has shown that thermal treatment can be effectively applied to poplar plywood in order to make it suitable to the requirements of new end-uses. The present study aims to widen the knowledge of the effects of thermal treatment on poplar plywood. With this purpose, 7-layered, 12-mm thick plywood bonded with urea-melamine-formaldehyde (UMF) resin was thermally treated for 2 h at 170, 190 and 210 °C through the Termovuoto® process. The treatment aimed to improve the dimensional stability and durability against fungal decay. The process was set at lower temperature and shorter time than those of many thermal treatments commonly used in practice in order to limit the reduction in mechanical properties and to maintain an adequate bonding quality. The above properties were already verified by previous research, whereas in this study Brinell hardness and contact angle of treated panels were investigated as relevant for several end-uses that can be prospected in building and in outdoor environments. Brinell hardness decreased from 10.8 to 8.3 N mm-2 and contact angle increased from 75.8° to 103.6°. Overall, treatment at 190 °C seems the most suitable to induce balanced modifications in the panels. From a technical point of view, these appear ready to enter the market, for instance for use in exterior claddings, partitions and outdoor flooring.

A Pilot Study to Validate a Wearable Inertial Sensor for Gait Assessment in Older Adults with Falls.

The high prevalence of falls and the enormous impact they have on the elderly population is a cause for concern. We aimed to develop a walking-monitor gait pattern (G-STRIDE) for older adults based on a 6-axis inertial measurement (IMU) with the application of pedestrian dead reckoning algorithms and tested its structural and clinical validity. A cross-sectional case–control study was conducted with 21 participants (11 fallers and 10 non-fallers). We measured gait using an IMU attached to the foot while participants walked around different grounds (indoor flooring, outdoor floor, asphalt, etc.). The G-STRIDE consisted of a portable inertial device that monitored the gait pattern and a mobile app for telematic clinical analysis. G-STRIDE made it possible to measure gait parameters under normal living conditions when walking without assessing the patient in the outpatient clinic. Moreover, we verified concurrent validity with convectional outcome measures using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and analyzed the differences between participants. G-STRIDE showed high estimation accuracy for the walking speed of the elderly and good concurrent validity compared to conventional measures (ICC = 0.69; p < 0.000). In conclusion, the developed inertial-based G-STRIDE can accurately classify older people with risk to fall with a significance as high as using traditional but more subjective clinical methods (gait speed, Timed Up and Go Test).

Tribological approach for the safety assessment of flooring/walkway surfaces: Application for the prevention of pedestrian fall incidence

This study investigated the role of surface finishes from different material types of floors/walkways on traction properties and identified their effects on slipperiness controls under diverse walking environments to prevent fall incidence. Measurements and analyses of surface textures and traction properties of floors/walkways and interpretations were based on a tribological concept. Dynamic friction tests were conducted amongst nine indoor and outdoor floor specimens and three shoes under four different risk levels of environments. Test results showed that traction performances were considerably influenced by surface finishes of the floor specimens under the moderately (soapy) and highly (oily) risky conditions. This study also uncovered that rough floors did not mechanically ensure higher slip resistance whilst some smooth floors exhibited better slip resistance than the rougher ones. Nevertheless, outcomes from this study provided fundamental, but important information on the walkway traction properties that showed multifaceted features of tribological phenomena. Based on the overall findings, this study proposed an insight to identify the impact of floor/walkway textures on traction performances and consequently exploit sensible design concepts for the floor surfaces to prevent fall incidents.

Outdoor bamboo-fiber-reinforced composite: Influence of resin content on water resistance and mechanical properties

Despite the potential of bamboo products for use in construction, they are not yet widely developed owing to a lack of high-quality composites. In the present study, outdoor bamboo-fiber-reinforced composites (OBFRC) were prepared with four different phenol formaldehyde resin concentrations (10, 15, 20, and 25 wt%) using a novel technique, and their water resistance and mechanical properties were evaluated. Resin content significantly affected OBFRC performance. When resin content increased, water resistance increased gradually, shear strength increased initially before decreasing, while compressive strength decreased. There was no significant change in water resistance when resin concentration increased from 20 to 25%, but mechanical properties decreased significantly. Thus, the optimum resin concentration for the prepared OBFRC was 20%. This OBFRC is stronger and has better modulus and water resistance than other similar products, implying that it could be developed as an improved outdoor flooring and building material.

Tehnična in estetska življenjska doba lesa

In outdoor applications wood is exposed to biotic and abiotic degradation factors. These processes are essential for carbon circulation. However, if wood is used in commercial applications, these processes need to be slowed down as much as possible. When wood is degraded, it has to be replaced. In general, wooden elements are replaced for aesthetic reasons or due to the failure to meet technical requirements. This paper describes the most important mechanisms of wood degradation in outdoor applications. Special emphasis is given to the natural durability of wood and state-of-the-art preservation solutions. In addition, key results on the performance of the wooden on the decking of a study object in Ljubljana are presented. The decking represents a similar exposure to that of bridges, outdoor flooring or roofs, and therefore can be used as a model for the assessment of the performance of wood used outdoors.

Subjective Ratings of Floor Slippery on Common Indoor and Outdoor Floors

Subjective Ratings of Floor Slippery on Common Indoor and Outdoor Floors

Bamboo as an emerging source of raw material for household and building products

Bamboo is a category of fast-growing and widely distributed perennials having unique physical and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of bamboo are often higher (typically by two to three times) than those of conventional timbers, and it has become a very important raw material for the household/ building industries. Bamboo has been commercially used for the production of indoor and outdoor floors, furniture, and structural timber for building. Some performance defects/ drawbacks of bamboo have been effectively remedied, due to the new technologies, such as bamboo scrimber, which facilitates the market penetration/ acceptance of bamboo-based household and building products.

Effect of glass bead size and content on the thermomechanical properties of polyethylene composites

This work investigates the effect glass bead size (80 &lt; Φ &lt; 120 μm and 170 &lt; Φ &lt; 325 μm) and content (0, 20, 40, and 60 wt%) on the properties of virgin and recycled polyethylene (LDPE) composites. In particular, the composites were produced by simple dry‐blending and compression molding. From the samples produced, a morphological analysis was used to explain the properties of the composites in terms of physical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The results showed that the main failure was particle pull‐out due to poor interfacial adhesion. As expected, the density, tensile modulus, and storage modulus increased with glass content, while creep and recovery substantially decreased. In all cases, smaller particle sizes had a more important effect on the composite behavior due to their higher specific surface area. Overall, significant difference was observed between virgin and recycled LDPE due to the presence of contamination in the latter. Nevertheless, the results show that virgin polyethylene can be substituted by recycled polyethylene reinforced by glass particles, especially when smaller sizes are used and these materials can find applications as indoor or outdoor floor tiles. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 58:1826–1836, 2018. © 2017 Society of Plastics Engineers

Transparent icephobic coatings using bio-based epoxy resin

Ice accretion and accumulation pose serious challenges for maintaining the operation and performance of outdoor facilities in cold climate. Epoxy resin, with a wide range of formulation possibilities, is widely used as protective coatings for outdoor facilities. However, bisphenol A (BPA), a key ingredient of conventional epoxy, is known to interfere with human's natural hormones and cause various disorders in the body system. Reduction or complete elimination of the usage of BPA is therefore high in the agenda of the coatings industries. In this study, a transparent, anti-icing, bio-based epoxy coating was developed for room-temperature processing. As a result of hydrophobic treatment with addition of silanes, the glass-transition temperature and anti-icing performance of bio-based epoxy resin increased significantly. The optimum coating exhibited good water repellency and ice-adhesion strength as low as 50kPa at −20°, which was half of the widely accepted threshold value of 100kPa for icephobic coatings. The icing delay time was much delayed compared with that of an uncoated glass substrate. To further demonstrate the anti-icing performance of the optimized coating, supercooled-water dripping on coated wooden outdoor floors and wooded boards was conducted at −15°C, superior anti-icing performance was observed on the coated substrates.

Crystallisation of nepheline-based glass frits through fast-firing process

The aim of this research was to study the feasibility of producing sintered nepheline glass-ceramic through a fast firing route. The thermal behaviour of the original glass was analyzed by mean of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The microstructural analysis of glass-ceramic materials was carried out by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The results showed that the studied wastes are able to produce a glass and glass-ceramic materials through a sinter-crystallisation process, 100μm being the critical glass particle size. Glass-ceramics are composed of residual glassy phase and crystalline phases such as nepheline (NaAlSiO4), augite (Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe, Al)(Si, Al)2O4 and a solid solution belonging to the melilite group (Ca, Na)(Al, Mg, Fe,)(Si, Al)2O7. In a first evaluation, water absorption (0.02%) and bending strength (71MPa) of glass-ceramic achieved after thermal treatment at 1100°C/5min suggest that sintered glass-ceramics can be easily produced from coal fly ash and metallurgical slag wastes by a fast-firing cycle and they are extremely serviceable for outdoor flooring and wall cladding.

A Study on Analysis of Industrial Injury Characteristics of Aging Workers in Agriculture

Objective:This study aims to devise industrial injury prevention measures by analyzing industrial injury characteristics including the status of industrial injuries, source of industrial injury and accident type in order to prevent aging industrial injuries that account for more than half in the workplaces in agriculture. Background: Continuous migration from farm to city takes place among young people in rural areas in Korea, a traditionally agricultural country due to rapid industrialization and economic development. The aging rate in rural areas in 2013 was 37.3%, about three times higher than the total aging rate of 12.2% in Korea. According to industrial injury statistics of the Ministry of Employment and Labor, the number of industrial injuries in agriculture shows an uptrend and the industrial injuries of aging workers account for more than 50% each year. Method: Of the 2,970 industrial injury cases occurred in the workplaces in agriculture for five years during 2008 and 2012 offered by a national agency related to health and safety, this study analyzed 1,767 industrial injury cases of aging workers. Results: As a result of an analysis on aging industrial injuries by company size in agriculture, 89.8% of the total number of industrial injuries were analyzed to occur in small scale company. According to aging industrial injuries by source of industrial injury and accident type, the outdoor floor and a fall were analyzed to be the highest at 16.5% and 26.1%, respectively. Conclusion: This study analyzed aging industrial injuries by company size, age, job duration, accident severity, gender, nationality, the source of industrial injury and accident type in order to identify industrial injury characteristics in agriculture. Application: The identification of industrial injury characteristics of aging workers in agriculture is judged to be helpful to devising effective measures to prevent industrial injuries.

농작업 근로자의 산업재해 특성에 대한 연구(2008년~2012년)

Recently supporting policy of government for agricultural is changing from individual to workplace. For this reason, the number of industrial injury is increasing due to increase workplace in the agriculture. However, because the studies on the characteristics and causes of injury have not been performed, the effective measure for the prevention of industrial injury is difficult to establish. The aim of this study is to analyze the industrial injury characteristic and prepare the effective counterplan to prevent industrial injury of the workplace in the agriculture. This study analyzed 2,970 cases of industrial injury during the last five years (2008-2012) in the agriculture sector. The data was offered by Korean Occupational Safety and Health Agency. The results of analysis the industrial injury characteristic of the workplace in the agriculture, number of industrial injury for source of industrial injury was 12.3% in the outdoor floor and injury type was 23.1% in the fall. This study analyzed industrial injury characteristic which size and type of workplace, injury type and source of industrial injury through the case of industrial injury in agriculture. The result of this study will be helpful to identify the industrial injury characteristic in the agriculture and prepares the effective industrial injury prevention method.

Molecular Mechanics of Organic Composite Materials: A Case Study of Cellulose-Adhesive System

ABSTRACTOrganic composite materials can be readily found in our daily life, such as plywood used in construction industry and bamboo composites as indoor and outdoor flooring materials. These organic composite material systems consist of cellulose fibers bonded with each other through adhesives, leading to a bonded system with a gradient structure that possesses a unique structural behavior which has a great potential to be used as load-bearing building materials. In view of the manufacturing process of such composite material systems and the structure in-between the cellulose fibers and the adhesives, the interfacial adhesion of such systems at multiscale would play a major role in determining their capability in load-bearing structural applications. In this research work, the interface between cellulose fiber and phenol-formaldehyde adhesive is chosen as a representative of the organic composite material system and molecular dynamics simulation is used for quantifying their mechanical properties and the corresponding interfacial adhesion. Here we demonstrate that cellulose fiber has a strong affinity to a phenol-formaldehyde adhesive with an adhesion energy of 151.3 mJ/m2. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that reports this material property for cellulose-adhesive system, which is three times larger than that between the gecko foot’s hair and the mineral surface. The mechanism of such strong adhesion is due to the possible hydrogen bonding between the cellulose and the adhesive.