Outcomes Of Language Contact Research Articles

Japanese and Chinese Lexical Borrowing as an Outcome of Language Contact and Influence

As a commonly observed phenomenon, no language has not borrowed lexical items from some other language(s), just as no culture has developed with no influence from some other culture(s). There have been numerous studies of linguistic borrowing to explore why a particular language incorporates some linguistic elements from another language into its linguistic repertoire. This is known as a phenomenon of linguistic transference. Abundant research findings provide strong evidence that such a transference most commonly occurs in the realm of vocabulary because the borrowing language (i.e., the recipient language) incorporates some cultural items or conceptual elements and the names along with them from some external source. More specifically, this particular linguistic phenomenon is recognized as lexical borrowing. From some cross-linguistic and cross-cultural perspectives, this study describes and explains lexical borrowing in terms of linguistic transformation as an outcome of language contact. Linguistic transformation is defined as adaptation of one linguistic form in one language to another linguistic form in another language. Language contact is defined as the phenomenon where two languages come into contact at various cross-linguistic and cross-cultural levels. Based on the representative examples as observed in contemporary Japanese and Chinese lexical borrowing, this paper presents a case study of such a particular language contact phenomenon by categorizing the borrowed lexical items into several areas of language contact. It describes linguistic transformation in terms of phonological/morphological adaptation and semantic transfer/creation/substitution. Thus, this study presents a model of lexical borrowing through language contact and its linguistic outcome.

Progressive constructions in different Balochi dialects from a diachronic and an areal linguistic point of view

AbstractThe present study explores the progressive constructions in different Balochi dialects from a diachronic and an areal linguistic point of view. Previous studies on different Balochi dialects (Buddruss 1988; Baranzehi 2003; Farrell 2003; Axenov 2006; Ahangar 2007; Jahani and Korn 2009; Nourzaei et al. 2015; Korn and Nourzaei 2019; Korn 2020, 2017a and 2017b) have described progressive constructions, but discussion from a diachronic and an areal linguistic point of view is largely lacking. I will argue that the diversity of progressive constructions in Balochi dialects is a result of language contact and diffusion rather than an internal historical development that can be explained in terms of grammaticalization. In addition, there is no trace of a morphological progressive construction in written samples of Balochi. The general imperfective marker =a= (verbal clitic) covers ongoing meaning. To the extent that this marker has lost its ongoing meaning and become a general indicative marker in the present domain, the language has filled the progressive gap with new constructions which are basically a result of language and dialect contact. The new progressive constructions are mainly periphrastic constructions that represent either direct or indirect code copying from dominant languages and other Balochi dialects.

Micro-sociolinguistic outcomes of language contact in different lects of Indian English

This paper explores language contact phenomena (substrate und superstrate influence, universal learning strategies) in the speech of English-dominant, Hindi-dominant and bilingual speakers of Indian English. In so doing, it describes the nature and extent of linguistic variation that spans a broad sociolinguistic spectrum. The empirical basis of the study targets two domains of language: morpho-syntax (the English present perfect) and discourse pragmatics (quotative marking). The stratification of the informants into English-dominant, Hindi-dominant and bilingual is diagnostic of the sociolinguistic settings in which varieties in contact have been acquired (predominantly English, predominantly Hindi or mixed). The results indicate that superstratal influence is most noticeable in the speech of English-dominant individuals. In contrast, Hindi-dominant and bilingual speakers demonstrate substrate-induced features in their speech. The universal learning strategies of simplification are limited to the linguistic repertoires of the individuals with predominantly Hindi background. Crucially, bilingual speakers appear to engage in the construction of creative coinages and lead an incipient language change in the domain of quotative marking. Against this backdrop, the study shows that bilingualism is a primary sociocognitive condition underpinning speakers’ linguistic creativity and its major prerequisite. The study also pinpoints the importance of sociolinguistic differentiation through meticulous ethnographic fieldwork in the study of linguistic variation.

The role of cognitive schemas in linguistic convergence

Abstract This article reports on some outcomes of language contact and linguistic convergence involving Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan languages in the Northeast Indian state of Nagaland. The primary focus falls on Nagamese, a lingua franca of the region that is undergoing a change in its morphosyntactic alignment typology. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that cognitive schemas are most likely responsible for the spread of replicated case marking patterns from local Tibeto-Burman languages to Nagamese, and that this has triggered a change in the alignment pattern of Nagamese over the past fifty years. The data presented in the paper are significant for demonstrating how language contact and the replication of cognitive schemas can be plausible drivers of grammatical change, even for something as fundamental to the syntax of a language as its morphosyntactic alignment.

A Case of Pseudo-Optionality as a Consequence of Language Contact

The current study demonstrates a case of pseudo-optionality in Chinese Wu, whereby certain adverbs can “optionally” appear in both pre-verbal position and post-verbal position. We argue that this is only a case of pseudo-optionality and that these “optional” constructions are in fact resulted from language contact between Wu and Mandarin Chinese. Importantly, no derivational relationship exists between the two adverbs, given that both are base-generated. Furthermore, the current case suggests that some phenomena related to apparent optionality can be a result of language contact, which offers a plausible account for problems related to the existence of certain optional structures under the framework of the Minimalist Program (see Chomsky 2000).

Testing Inferences about Language Contact on Morphosyntax: A Typological Case Study on Alorese–Adang Contact

AbstractWhen linguists make inferences about language contact, control data is required for reliable analysis. Historical data or reconstructions are typically used for that purpose. However, historical data is globally mostly unavailable, and reconstructions are laborious if comparing outcomes of language contact in a typological way. We assess a recent typological proposal (Di Garbo & Napoleão de Souza 2023) that argues that using a single language, called Benchmark language, can serve as a viable control for making inferences about contact. To evaluate this approach, we use as a case study a documented contact situation in Eastern Indonesia between the Austronesian language Alorese and the Papuan language Adang. We sample languages related to Alorese and use computational phylogenetic methods for ancestral reconstruction to analyse if using a single Benchmark produces deviating inferences about contact compared to using Bayesian ancestral reconstructions. Additionally, we test for isolation by distance effects by analysing if the probability of contact effects correlates with increasing geographic distance from the contact region. The results suggest that no isolation by distance effects exist in the data and that none of the single Benchmarks significantly deviate from the ancestral reconstructions.

Multilingual Language Ideological Assemblages: Language Contact, Documentation and Revitalization

Abstract Data from long-term research in two ideologically divergent Native American linguistic communities demonstrate the importance, first, of indigenous multilingualisms and, second, of distinctive ideologies of multilingualism in shaping the divergent language contact outcomes and practices of those communities as they adapted to such forces as economic incorporation, colonization, assimilationist policies, and later decolonization and attempted language revitalization. Indigenous ideological differences in these communities were key factors in producing divergent patterns of language shift as well as in community efforts to document and revitalize their respective heritage languages. The Village of Tewa (NE Arizona) still partially retains a multilingual adaptation in all generations except youth and young adults (Kroskrity, 1993; 2014). The Western Mono (Central California) were traditionally multilingual with neighboring languages of the Yokuts and Southern Sierra Miwok groups (Kroskrity, 2009a). Though both groups were historically multilingual, multilingual practices were differentially influenced by distinctive language ideologies such as those emphasizing purism/syncretism and the expressive/utilitarian functions of language. This observation suggests the importance of understanding indigenous multilingualisms and their consequences for language contact within their language ideological assemblages (Kroskrity, 2018).

Fast-Speech-Induced Hypoarticulation Does Not Considerably Affect the Diachronic Reversal of Complementary Length in Central Bavarian.

This study investigated a sound change in progress by which the Central Bavarian dialect feature of complementary length between consonant and the preceding vowel is giving way to the unrestricted combination possibility of long (Vː) and short (V) vowels with following longer fortis (Cː) and shorter lenis (C) stops, respectively. This 2 × 2 system is also found in the standard variety of German. While previous studies have regarded any such findings of convergence toward Standard German as being a result of language contact, the present study specifically tested the possibility of fast-speech-induced hypoarticulation being a system-internal driver of this change. The focus of this study was on acoustic cues to the postvocalic stop. Following the apparent-time paradigm, acoustic analyses of 10 younger and 10 older dialect speakers revealed that (1) younger dialect speakers produced both VC and VːCː (both formerly illegal in the dialect), but (2) older dialect speakers produced only VːCː sequences with duration patterns similar to those of the control group of 10 Standard German speakers. Analyses of various dependent variables further showed (3) the (apparently) delayed emergence of aspiration as an additional cue to the fortis-lenis contrast in Western Central Bavarian particularly in younger dialect speakers, (4) no considerable effect of speech rate on the dispersion of and overlap between any of the four vowel-plus-stop combinations, and (5) the irregular spread of this change that appears to be gradual. As such, the findings support a model of linguistic change that also accounts for gradual changes in dialect borrowing.

ANALYSIS OF AFFIX –LY AS MODIFIER OF ADVERB OF MANNER IN SOCIAL MEDIA POSTS

This analytical descriptive research aims to describe a linguistic phenomenon that is popular among social media users, namely the use of the suffix –ly in Indonesian vocabulary. The approaches used were morphological, syntactic, and semantic. The data collection method chosen was the note-taking method with data analyis technique used distributional method. The data collected were 12 sentence data containing the words anggunly, jujurly, barbarly. Based on the results of the analysis, morphologically, the affix –ly in the words anggunly, jujurly, barbarly is a suffix that must be tied to the base morpheme that is classified as an adjective. Syntactically, the affix –ly changes the base morpheme that is classified as an adjective into an adverb. Semantically, the affix –ly has the same meaning as the modifier of the adverb in Indonesian, namely ‘secara’ and ‘dengan’. The emergence of the affix –ly as the modifier of adverb is the result of language contact with English and is increasingly being popularized by an influencer, Vindy Lee, so that it becomes slang language.

Language contact across ethnic boundaries

Abstract Throughout antiquity, the Chittagong Hill Tract was a sparsely populated region. This population increased with the immigration of different speech communities, thus changing its linguistic mosaic, and creating conditions for language contact between vernacular Bangla and between its ancestral Indo-Aryan variety Pali, the superstrate, and the Tibeto-Burman variety, the substratum. In the changing language contact situation, language contact involved various phenomena, such as language maintenance, the creation of new contact languages, i.e. pidgins and creoles as well as the acquisition and integration into a dominant L2. Through this language contact, the processes of language contact have had particular linguistic, social, and political outcomes that have shaped the region. The linguistic outcomes include lexical borrowing, calquing, and structural convergence, as well as the creation of a new contact language combining both the Indo-Aryan vernacular and Tibeto-Burman vernacular. This paper discusses these outcomes, and describes that changes in the social and political makeup of the region have ultimately led to language change. The study argues that linguistic change appears at present in several ways: The lexical makeup, phraseology and syntactic structure of Indo-Aryan varieties spoken by the Tibeto-Burman speech communities; pidgins including Chakma and Tanchangya which have emerged from contact between the Indo-Aryan variety and the Arakanese vernacular; a Tibeto-Burman pidgin which has emerged from contact between the superstrata Marma and the substrates Chak, Khumi, and Kheyang, which are spoken by the Marma, Chak, Khumi, and Kheyang ethnicities. Ultimately, the study presents that these social and linguistic outcomes have manifested themselves in the form of bilingualism and so code-mixing, and where the political outcomes of language contact have forged the political makeup of the Chittagong Hill Tract to bring the region to become one part of the larger political superstructure of Bangladesh.

Residues and Extensions of Perfective Auxiliary be: Modal Conditioning

This article provides both a diachronic and synchronic account of the generalization of perfective auxiliary be in specific irrealis modal contexts across numerous Romance varieties spoken in Italy and more widely within the Romània, which has essentially gone unnoticed in the descriptive and theoretical literature. In some cases (southern Calabrian, Latin American Spanish, Portuguese), the distribution of be is to be interpreted as a residue of an original unaccusative syntax which was exceptionally preserved under higher V-movement in irrealis contexts, whereas in others (person-driven dialects of central and southern Italy, southern peninsular Spanish, Romanian) this original unaccusative signal has been reanalysed as a specialized marker of irrealis (lexicalizing a high Mood head) and extended to all verb classes. In the case of Alguerès, by contrast, the generalization of irrealis be is argued to be the result of language contact with surrounding Sardinian dialects where a specific pattern of dedicated irrealis marking of Mood° has been replicated. Finally, the reverse pattern with generalization of irrealis have, the reanalysis of an aspectual distinction between resultative and experiential perfects found in early Romance varieties (Neapolitan, Sicilian, Spanish, Catalan), is shown to involve a similar pattern of dedicated irrealis marking in Mood°.

Trolli se ei ole poika leikki jos mie tartuttelen: frekventatiivijohdoksen kehittyminen adversatiiviseksi passiiviksi kveenissä pohjoissaamen kielikontaktin seurauksena

Derivatives ending in ttele are used with a passive meaning in the Kven dialects of Porsangerand Nordreisa. This use is a result of language contact with Sami. As in the Sami model ofadversative passive, these Kven passive derivatives express an unfavorable event. They areused with a subject argument which has a semantic role as a patient or experiencer andan agent expressed in the allative case. However, not many verbs have gone through thissemantic change. This semantic change illustrates innovative language use among bilinguals.Both second language learners, such as those described by Siitonen (1999) but also bilingualsinterpret linguistic phenomena they encounter in one language based on the knowledge oflanguages they already know. However, while multilinguals create innovations, only thoseinnovations that are accepted by the entire speech community become permanent.

Voicing in Qaqet: Prenasalization and language contact

Qaqet is a non-Austronesian Baining language of Papua New Guinea, with a very small phoneme inventory of 16 consonants and four vowels, including the voiced stops /b d ɡ/. These stops are often phonetically realized as prenasalized [mb nd ŋɡ], and this feature is assumed to be a result of language contact with surrounding Oceanic languages. Our data consist of isolated word recordings from six female speakers of the language. Using a range of acoustic measures, we compare these phonetically prenasalized stops with non-prenasalized tokens of the same /b d ɡ/ phonemes, and with the nasal phonemes proper /m n ŋ/, as well as with the unaspirated voiceless stops /p t k/.In general we find that the nasal murmur of the phonetically prenasalized stop does not fully resemble the nasal murmur of the nasal consonant proper – instead the phonetically prenasalized stop patterns between the nasal consonant and the phonetically non-prenasalized voiced stop. However, there is a clear place effect, whereby the phonetically prenasalized velar stop patterns more closely with the nasal consonants, and the phonetically prenasalized bilabial stop patterns more closely with the phonetically non-prenasalized voiced stops – with phonetically prenasalized alveolar in between the bilabial and the velar. This is particularly reflected in the distribution of energy below and above about 350 Hz. However, measures of voicing strength suggest that voicing for the velar is weaker across all manners of articulation, in line with the general difficulty of maintaining voicing at this place of articulation. We conclude that prenasalization of the voiced stops largely serves to maintain voicing for the velar place of articulation; and that if the feature of prenasalization was borrowed from neighbouring languages, it was to maintain voicing for long closure durations in a true voicing language, particularly at places of articulation where maintaining voicing is difficult.

Inter and intrasentential code switching among late bilinguals

This study investigates intersentential and intrasentential code switching among late bilinguals among the Kurdish bilinguals. enormous studies have been conducted on the impact of age of language acquisition on learning second language, however a little research have been conducted concerning to the influence of age of acquisition on how bilingual speakers code switch and the influence of language proficiency on intersentential and intrasentential code switching. The result found out that that age of acquisition plays a crucial role in bilingual code switch. Early bilinguals code switch more frequently than the late bilinguals, intersentential code switching is more common among late bilinguals, whilst intrasentenial code switching is more trend among the early bilinguals. Reference: Ali, Barzan Jaafar (2019) Grammatical aspect of code switching in Farsi-English bilingual speech. University of Sussex, UK. PhD thesis Chan, B. and Hock-Shing. (2015) A diachronic-function approach to explaining grammatical patterns in code-switching: Postmodification in Cantonese English noun phrase. International Journal of Bilingualism. Sage publication. Cheng, L. and Butler, K. (1989) Code-switching: A natural phenomenon vs. language ‘deficiency.’ World English. Di Sciullo, A., Muysken, P., & Singh, R. (1986) Code-mixing and government, Journal of Linguistics. Eppler, Eva. (2010) The Syntax of German-English Code-Switching. Braumüller. Evangelia Adamou and Rachel Shen (2019) There are no language switching costs when code switching is frequent. International Journal of Bilingualism, SAGE Publications. Flege, J. E. (1999) Age of learning and second language speech. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Hans Voggt. 1954. Language Contacts. Word Hartshorne, J.K, Tenenbaum, J. B, Pinker. S (2018) A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers.” Cognition vol. 177: 263-277. Labov, W (1977) Language in the inner city: studies in the black-English vernacular. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Lipski, J. M. (1985) Linguistic Aspects of Spanish-English Language Switching. Arizona State University Center for Latin American Studies. MacSwan, J (1999) minimalist approach to intrasentential codeswitching. New York, Garland Publishing Muysken, P (1995) Grammatical concepts in code-switching. One speaker, two languages: Cross disciplinary perspective on code-switching. Muysken, P (2000) Bilingual speech: A typology of code mixing. Cambridge university press. Myers-Scotton, C.1993. Duelling languages: grammatical structure in code switching. Oxford: clarendon press. Nishimira, M (1986) Intra-sentential code-switching: The case of language assignment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Pfaff (1979) Constraints on language mixing: Intrasentential code-switching and borrowing in Spanish/English. Poplack, S (1980) Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish Y TERMINO EN ESPAÑOL: Toward a Typology of Code-Switching1’. Linguistics, vol.18. Sankoff, D, and Poplack, S (1981) A Formal Grammar for Code‐switching 1. Linguistics, vol. 14. Sankoff, G (2001) Linguistic outcomes of language contact. Handbook of Sociolinguistics, Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. Stenson, N (1990) Phrase structure congruence, government and Irish- English code switching. San Diego: Academic Press. Toribio, A.J (2001) On the Emergence of Bilingual Code-Switching Competence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, vol. 4. Weinreich, U (1953) Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton

Multilingualism in eastern Indonesia: linguistic evidence of a shift from symmetric to asymmetric multilingualism

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions:The Alorese in eastern Indonesia are an Austronesian community who have inhabited two Papuan-speaking islands for approximately 600 years. Their language presents a paradox: contact with the neighbouring Papuan languages has led to both complexification and simplification. This article argues that these opposite outcomes of contact result from two distinct scenarios, and formulates a hypothesis about a shift in multilingual patterns in Alorese history.Design/Methodology/Approach:To formulate a hypothesis about the discontinuity of multilingual patterns, this article first sketches the past and present multilingual patterns of the Alorese by modelling language contact outcomes in terms of bilingual optimisation strategies. This is followed by a comparison of the two scenarios to pinpoint similarities and differences.Data and Analysis:Previous research shows that two types of contact phenomena are attested in Alorese: (a) complexification arising from grammatical borrowings from Papuan languages, and (b) morphological simplification. The first change is associated with prolonged child bilingualism and is the result of Papuan-oriented bilingual strategies, while the latter change is associated with adult second language (L2) learning and is the result of universal communicative strategies.Findings/ConclusionsComplexification and simplification are the results of two different layers of contact. Alorese was first used in small-scale bilingual communities, with widespread symmetric multilingualism. Later, multilingualism became more asymmetric, and the language started to undergo a simplification process due to the considerable number of L2 speakers.Originality:This article is innovative in providing a clear case study showing discontinuity of multilingual patterns, supported by linguistic and non-linguistic evidence.Significance/Implications:This article provides a plausible explanation for the apparent paradox found in Alorese, by showing that different outcomes of contact in the same language are due to different patterns of acquisition and socialisation. This discontinuity should be taken into account by models of language contact.

If Not, Or Else, and Maybe in Akkadian and Perhaps in Hebrew


 
 
 The particle ulašūma (‘or else’) in Old Babylonian Akkadian is analyzed from a functional and syntactic point of view . In addition to its known functions as a pro-polar protasis (‘if not, otherwise, or else’) and as a disjunctive particle (‘or’), it is also concluded to function as a conditional exponent . As such it is shown to belong with other expressions of epistemic modality (modal and conditional par- ticles) . Its most plausible diachronic source is determined, based on comparative as well as Akkadian material, to have been a non-verbal circumstantial expression *u lā šū (‘it (is) not’) ultimately meaning ‘it not being the case. . .’. In the second part of the paper, a cognate origin (*ū lā hī ‘it not being the case’) is proposed for the Biblical Hebrew epistemic particle ʔūlay (‘maybe/if’). Two possible paths are discussed—one is internal development and the other a result of language contact . Each path is considered, paying meticulous attention to the respective sets of difficulties . The difference in the synchronic function and meaning between the Akkadian and Hebrew particles is bridged based on the syntactic and functional analysis of the Old Babylonian particle, which shows it to be an epistemic particle .
 
 

Asymmetry and Directionality in Catalan–Spanish Contact: Intervocalic Fricatives in Barcelona and Valencia

Multilingual communities often exhibit asymmetry in directionality by which the majority language exerts greater influence on the minority language. In the case of Spanish in contact with Catalan, the asymmetry of directionality, favoring stronger influence of Spanish as a majority language over Catalan, is complicated by the unique sociolinguistic statuses afforded to different varieties of Catalan. In order to empirically substantiate the social underpinnings of directionality in language contact settings, the present study examines the variable voicing and devoicing of intervocalic alveolar fricatives in Spanish, Barcelonan Catalan, and Valencian Catalan as processes that are historically endogenous and equally linguistically motivated in both languages. Intervocalic fricatives in both languages were elicited using a phrase-list reading task, alongside sociolinguistic interviews for attitudinal data, administered to 96 Catalan–Spanish bilinguals stratified by gender, age, and language dominance in Barcelona and Valencia, Spain. Patterns of sociolinguistic stratification consistent with community-level changes in progress favoring either Catalan-like voicing or Spanish-like devoicing varied by community, with a stronger influence of Catalan on Spanish in Barcelona and Spanish on Catalan in Valencia. These asymmetries, corroborated by attitudinal differences afforded to Catalan and Spanish in Barcelona and Valencia, ultimately reinforce the role of social factors in language contact outcomes.

BENTUK KOSAKATA BAHASA INGGRIS PADA MEDIA SOSIAL LEMBAGA PEMERINTAH INDONESIA

Many exposure of foreign languages, in this case is English, in daily communication could give significant impact towards oral and written language to the Indonesian speech community. That phenomenon was the result of language contact which is widespread in this digital era. This research aimed to identify English vocabulary which found in the caption on social media Instagram account of Ministry and Non-Ministerial Government Agencies in Indonesia. Data in this research were the English loanwords vocabulary and interference which are obtained by applying observation method with screenshot and note taking technique. Data source used is the social media Instagram account of Ministry and Non-Ministerial Government Agencies in Indonesia, such as @bekrafid, @kemdikbud.ri, @ristekdikti, @kemlu.ri, @kemenpar, @infobmkg, and @kemenhub151. The results found of this study were loanwords, loanblends, and loanshifts, also phonological, morphological, and lexical interference.

Patterns and Mechanisms of Lexical Changes in the Languages of Symbiotic Communities: Kinship Terminology in Karashevo (Banat, Romania)

This article deals with the ethnolinguistic situation in one of the most archaic areas of language and cultural contact between South Slavic and Eastern Romance populations — the Karashevo microregion in Banat, Romania. For the first time, the lexical-semantic group of kinship terms in the Krashovani dialects from the Slavic-speaking village of Carașova and the Romanian-speaking village of Iabalcea is being analysed in a comparative perspective as two separate linguistic codes which “serve” the same local culture. The main goal of the research was to investigate patterns of borrowing mechanisms which could link lexical (sub)systems of spiritual cultureunder the conditions of intimate language contact in symbiotic communities. It will be shown that, in such situations, the equivalent translation becomes relevant as a specific strategy of linguistic code interrelationships. Even though kinship terminology in closely contacting dialectshas the potential to help linguists trace back the socio-historical conditions and outcomes of language contact (such as marriage patterns), linguistic methods have their limitations in the case of poorly documented vernaculars. These limitations could be overcome by compiling more data on “isocontacting” communities and, possibly, by analysing this data using quantitative tools.

Internationalisms, Anglo-Latinisms and other kinship ties between Italian and English

In the analysis of language contact and borrowing, the category of internationalism denotes lexical items that are formally and semantically similar across unrelated languages, mainly of neo-classical origin. Internationalisms are characteristically unmarked for a specific national provenance, like the pair En electricity / It elettricita. On the other hand, many similar examples, such as En romantic and It romantico, are the result of borrowings from English into Italian, a fact that can be established only on historical grounds, because the word itself does not reveal any trace of foreignness to the lay Italian speaker, being Italian a Latin-based language. In this paper, the lexical category of internationalism will be defined and set apart from other outcomes of language contact, like direct and indirect Anglicisms, Anglo-Latinisms, and other forms of linguistic kinship between these two, partly unrelated, European languages. Linguistic factors such as etymology, route of transmission, and non-linguistic ones such as historical events and motivation for borrowing (Wexler 1969) are used for this analysis, which will be applied to relevant examples of Italian vocabulary.