Avian Influenza H5N1 Outbreaks Research Articles

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N8 and H5N1 outbreaks in Algerian avian livestock production

Avian Alpha-influenza-virus (AIV) massively affects poultry, targeting mainly the respiratory tract for virus replication. Recently, two major H5N8 and H5N1 outbreaks caused tremendous losses in Algerian poultry. The clinical symptoms that had not been seen in the past didn’t prompt a rapid reaction to control the epidemics. We report here the characteristics of these outbreaks and the epidemiological status of AIV in Algeria. Following autopsy observation samples from target organs were taken and analyzed by the classical real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR). Specific PCR HA and NA identification was used for subtyping H5 and N1/N8 genes. Systemic damage was observed in the upper-respiratory tracts with hemorrhagic and congestive tracheas, lungs, proventriculus, gut, and cecal tonsils were bloody. Out of 77 positive cases 13 were H5N8, 8 H5N1, and 10 H5Nx strains. These findings raise questions about the strain’s pathotype considering severe organ damage and high mortality.

Comparison of the Clinical Manifestation of HPAI H5Nx in Different Poultry Types in the Netherlands, 2014-2022.

This study describes clinical manifestations of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1, H5N8 and H5N6 outbreaks between 2014 and 2018 and 2020 and 2022 in the Netherlands for different poultry types and age groups. Adult duck (breeder) farms and juvenile chicken (broiler and laying pullet) farms were not diagnosed before 2020. Outbreaks in ducks decreased in 2020-2022 vs. 2014-2018, but increased for meat-type poultry. Neurological, locomotor and reproductive tract signs were often observed in ducks, whereas laying- and meat-type poultry more often showed mucosal membrane and skin signs, including cyanosis and hemorrhagic conjunctiva. Juveniles (chickens and ducks) showed neurological and locomotor signs more often than adults. Diarrhea occurred more often in adult chickens and juvenile ducks. Mortality increased exponentially within four days before notification in chickens and ducks, with a more fluctuating trend in ducks and meat-type poultry than in layers. For ducks, a mortality ratio (MR) > 3, compared to the average mortality of the previous week, was reached less often than in chickens. A lower percentage of laying flocks with MR > 3 was found for 2020-2022 vs. 2014-2018, but without significant differences in clinical signs. This study provides a basis for improvements in mortality- and clinical-sign-based early warning criteria, especially for juvenile chickens and ducks.

Association of biosecurity and hygiene practices with avian influenza A/H5 and A/H9 virus infections in turkey farms.

High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks pose a significant threat to the health of livestock, wildlife, and humans. Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are enzootic in poultry in many countries, including Bangladesh, necessitating improved farm biosecurity measures. However, the comprehension of biosecurity and hygiene practices, as well as the infection of AIV in turkey farms, are poorly understood in Bangladesh. Therefore, we conducted this study to determine the prevalence of AIV subtypes and their association with biosecurity and hygiene practices in turkey farms. We collected oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from individual turkeys from 197 farms across 9 districts in Bangladesh from March to August 2019. We tested the swab samples for the AIV matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We found 24.68% (95% CI:21.54-28.04) of turkey samples were AIV positive, followed by 5.95% (95% CI: 4.33-7.97) for H5, 6.81% (95% CI: 5.06-8.93) for H9 subtype and no A/H7 was found. Using a generalized linear mixed model, we determined 10 significant risk factors associated with AIV circulation in turkey farms. We found that the absence of sick turkeys, the presence of footbaths, the absence of nearby poultry farms, concrete flooring, and the avoidance of mixing newly purchased turkeys with existing stock can substantially reduce the risk of AIV circulation in turkey farms (odds ratio ranging from 0.02 to 0.08). Furthermore, the absence of nearby live bird markets, limiting wild bird access, no visitor access, improved floor cleaning frequency, and equipment disinfection practices also had a substantial impact on lowering the AIV risk in the farms (odds ratio ranging from 0.10 to 0.13). The results of our study underscore the importance of implementing feasible and cost-effective biosecurity measures aimed at reducing AIV transmission in turkey farms. Particularly in resource-constrained environments such as Bangladesh, such findings might assist governmental entities in enhancing biosecurity protocols within their poultry sector, hence mitigating and potentially averting the transmission of AIV and spillover to humans.

Pathology and molecular detection of influenza Asubtype H9N2 virus in commercial poultry in Nigeria, 2024

Background: After the first Avian Influenza H5N1 outbreak in Nigerian poultry in 2006, subsequent waves of outbreaks occurred, causing substantial losses. Despite effective control measures by 2008, a resurgence in 2015 led to further losses and required depopulation efforts. Aim: The aim of this study was to do Pathology and molecular detection of influenza A subtype H9N2 virus in commercial poultry in Nigeria during 2024. Methods: In February 2024, a poultry farmer reported high mortality in his mixed commercial poultry flock in Ibadan, Nigeria, submitting carcasses to the University of Ibadan's V.T.H. and the FAO Regional Laboratory at NVRI, Vom. Results: Necropsy of nine Isa Brown layers and three Abor Acre broilers revealed cyanosis of comb and wattles, generalized petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages including shank haemorrhages with sinusitis, pneumonia, and severe greenish faecal pasting also observed. At histopathology, denudation of the tracheal epithelia and parabronchial epithelial necrosis, obliteration, with airsac oedema and emphysema were observed. At NVRI, qPCR detected an Influenza A H9N2 virus in several pooled organ samples of layers, and broilers and eliminating the avian infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease viruses. Conclusion: This is the first report of H9N2 outbreak in commercial poultry in Southern Nigeria. The high pathogenicity shown in commercial poultry in this outbreak and the risk of dispersal of infected live poultry in Nigeria as previously seen in H5N1 require stakeholders’ intervention.

The role of vaccination and environmental factors on outbreaks of high pathogenicity avian influenza H5N1 in Bangladesh

High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks continue to wreak havoc on the global poultry industry and threaten the health of wild bird populations, with sporadic spillover in humans and other mammals, resulting in widespread calls to vaccinate poultry. Bangladesh has been vaccinating poultry since 2012, presenting a prime opportunity to study the effects of vaccination on HPAI H5N1circulation in both poultry and wild birds. We investigated the efficacy of vaccinating commercial poultry against HPAI H5N1 along with climatic and socio-economic factors considered potential drivers of HPAI H5N1 outbreak risk in Bangladesh. Using a multivariate modeling approach, we estimated that the rate of outbreaks was 18 times higher before compared to after vaccination, with winter months having a three times higher chance of outbreaks than summer months. Variables resulting in small but significant increases in outbreak rate were relatively low ambient temperatures for the time of year, literacy rate, chicken and duck density, crop density, and presence of highways; this may be attributable to low temperatures supporting viral survival outside the host, higher literacy driving reporting rate, density of the host reservoir, and spread of the virus through increased connectivity. Despite the substantial impact of vaccination on outbreaks, we note that HPAI H5N1 is still enzootic in Bangladesh; vaccinated poultry flocks have high rates of H5N1 prevalence, and spillover to wild birds has increased. Vaccination in Bangladesh thus bears the risk of supporting “silent spread,” where the vaccine only provides protection against disease and not also infection. Our findings underscore that poultry vaccination can be part of holistic HPAI mitigation strategies when accompanied by monitoring to avoid silent spread.

Investigation of risk factors for the introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus onto table egg farms in the United States, 2022: A case-control study. Proceeding of The First International Avian Influenza Summit, University of Arkansas- October 16-17, 2023”

Introduction: The 2022–2023 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in the United States (U.S.) is the most geographically extensive and costly animal health event in U.S. history. In 2022 alone, over 57 million commercial and backyard poultry in 47 U.S. states were affected. Over 75% of the affected poultry were part of the commercial table egg production sector. Methods: We conducted a case-control study to identify potential risk factors for the introduction of the HPAI virus onto commercial table egg operations. Univariate and multivariable analyses were conducted to compare farm characteristics, management, and biosecurity factors on case and control farms. Results: Factors associated with increased risk of infection included being in an existing control zone, sightings of wild waterfowl, mowing or bush hogging vegetation less than 4 times a month, having an off-site method of daily mortality disposal (off-site composting or burial, rendering, or landfill), and wild bird access to feed/feed ingredients at least some of the time. Protective factors included a high level of vehicle washing for trucks and trailers entering the farm (a composite variable that included having a permanent wash station), having designated personnel assigned to specific barns, having a farm entrance gate, and requiring a change of clothing for workers entering poultry barns. Discussion: Study results improve our understanding of risk factors for HPAI infection and control measures for preventing HPAI on commercial U.S. table egg farms.

Investigation of risk factors for the introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 infection among commercial turkey operations in the United States, 2022: A case-control study. Proceeding of The First International Avian Influenza Summit, University of Arkansas- October 16-17, 2023”

The 2022–2023 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in the United States (U.S.) is the largest and most costly animal health event in U.S. history. Approximately 70% of commercial farms affected during this outbreak have been turkey farms. We conducted a case-control study to identify potential risk factors for the introduction of the HPAI virus into commercial meat turkey operations. Data were collected from 66 case farms and 59 control farms in 12 states. Univariate and multivariable analyses were conducted to compare management and biosecurity factors on case and control farms. Factors associated with increased risk of infection included being in an existing control zone, having both brooders and growers, having toms, seeing wild waterfowl or shorebirds in the closest field, and using rendering for dead bird disposal. Protective factors included having a restroom facility, including portable, available to crews that visit the farm and workers having access and using a shower at least some of the time when entering a specified barn. The study results provide a better understanding of risk factors for HPAI infection and can be used to inform prevention and control measures for HPAI on U.S. turkey farms.

Mass mortality event in South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) correlated to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in Chile

In Chile, since January 2023, a sudden and pronounced increase in strandings and mortality has been observed among South American (SA) sea lions (Otaria flavescens), prompting significant concern. Simultaneously, an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 (HPAIV H5N1) in avian species has emerged since December 2022. To investigate the cause of this unexpected mortality, we conducted a comprehensive epidemiological and pathologic study. One hundred sixty-nine SA sea lions were sampled to ascertain their HPAIV H5N1 status, and long-term stranding trends from 2009 to 2023 were analyzed. In addition, two animals were necropsied. Remarkably, a significant surge in SA sea lion strandings was observed initiating in January 2023 and peaking in June 2023, with a count of 4,545 stranded and deceased animals. Notably, this surge in mortality correlates geographically with HPAIV outbreaks affecting wild birds. Among 168 sampled SA sea lions, 34 (20%) tested positive for Influenza A virus, and 21 confirmed for HPAIV H5N1 2.3.4.4b clade in tracheal/rectal swab pools. Clinical and pathological evaluations of the two necropsied stranded sea lions revealed prevalent neurological and respiratory signs, including disorientation, tremors, ataxia, and paralysis, as well as acute dyspnea, tachypnea, profuse nasal secretion, and abdominal breathing. The lesions identified in necropsied animals aligned with observed clinical signs. Detection of the virus via immunohistochemistry (IHC) and real-time PCR in the brain and lungs affirmed the findings. The findings provide evidence between the mass mortality occurrences in SA sea lions and HPAIV, strongly indicating a causal relationship. Further studies are needed to better understand the pathogenesis and transmission.

Investigation of risk factors for introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 infection among commercial turkey operations in the United States, 2022: a case-control study.

The 2022-2023 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in the United States (U.S.) is the largest and most costly animal health event in U.S. history. Approximately 70% of commercial farms affected during this outbreak have been turkey farms. We conducted a case-control study to identify potential risk factors for introduction of HPAI virus onto commercial meat turkey operations. Data were collected from 66 case farms and 59 control farms in 12 states. Univariate and multivariable analyses were conducted to compare management and biosecurity factors on case and control farms. Factors associated with increased risk of infection included being in an existing control zone, having both brooders and growers, having toms, seeing wild waterfowl or shorebirds in the closest field, and using rendering for dead bird disposal. Protective factors included having a restroom facility, including portable, available to crews that visit the farm and workers having access and using a shower at least some of the time when entering a specified barn. Study results provide a better understanding of risk factors for HPAI infection and can be used to inform prevention and control measures for HPAI on U.S. turkey farms.

Investigation of risk factors for introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus onto table egg farms in the United States, 2022: a case-control study.

The 2022-2023 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in the United States (U.S.) is the most geographically extensive and costly animal health event in U.S. history. In 2022 alone, over 57 million commercial and backyard poultry in 47 U.S. states were affected. Over 75% of affected poultry were part of the commercial table egg production sector. We conducted a case-control study to identify potential risk factors for introduction of HPAI virus onto commercial table egg operations. Univariate and multivariable analyses were conducted to compare farm characteristics, management, and biosecurity factors on case and control farms. Factors associated with increased risk of infection included being in an existing control zone, sightings of wild waterfowl, mowing or bush hogging vegetation less than 4 times a month, having an off-site method of daily mortality disposal (off-site composting or burial, rendering, or landfill), and wild bird access to feed/feed ingredients at least some of the time. Protective factors included a high level of vehicle washing for trucks and trailers entering the farm (a composite variable that included having a permanent wash station), having designated personnel assigned to specific barns, having a farm entrance gate, and requiring a change of clothing for workers entering poultry barns. Study results improve our understanding of risk factors for HPAI infection and control measures for preventing HPAI on commercial U.S. table egg farms.

Epidemiology and Evolutionary Dynamics of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in Bangladesh

Understanding disease clustering and transmission patterns improves the prevention and control of disease. Herein, we described the epizootic characteristics and spatiotemporal dynamics of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks as well as clade diversity and phylodynamics of H5N1 over time and across host species in Bangladesh. We used Moran’s I, Geary’s C, Getis-Ord Gi∗, and a space-time permutation model to analyze the spatiotemporal patterns of H5N1 outbreaks. We used Bayesian phylogenetic analysis to generate a time-scaled maximum clade credibility (MCC) tree. Our study revealed nine HPAI H5N1 epizootic waves between 2007 and 2020 that invariably peaked in the wintertime. After vaccination of poultry against H5N1 was introduced in 2012, the incidence of HPAI H5N1 outbreaks and poultry mortality decreased significantly over time. Nonetheless, our research revealed that the virus continued circulating unabatedly in Bangladesh. The various spatiotemporal analyses were identified up to nine space-time clusters across Bangladesh, with the most significant clustering and hotspots of H5N1 outbreaks in and around the district of Dhaka. Since 2007, four H5N1 clades have been detected in Bangladesh, with only clade 2.3.2.1a continuing to circulate since 2011, which was followed up by the reassorted clade 2.3.2.1a in 2012. The HA gene of the H5N1 clade 2.3.2.1a has been reassorted into at least nine subgroups (R1–R9). After 2016, the first eight groups disappeared, with only the R9 group remaining. Spatiotemporal patterns and phylodynamics of H5N1 outbreaks are crucial for developing targeted and appropriate HPAI control and prevention measures. We recommended intensive monitoring of biosecurity measures and disease records in high-priority areas, along with assessing vaccine efficacy to better control HPAI outbreaks in Bangladesh.

Spatio-temporal distribution & seasonality of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 & H5N8 outbreaks in India, 2006-2021.

The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and H5N8 viruses have been one of the leading causes of avian diseases worldwide, resulting in severe economic losses and posing potential zoonotic risk. There are no reports on the correlation of the seasonality of H5N1 and H5N8 viruses with the migratory bird season in India, along with the species affected. The present report describes the distribution and seasonality of HPAI outbreaks in India from 2006 to 2021. The data on the occurrence and locations of outbreaks in India and affected bird species were collated from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations database and grouped by month and year. The distribution and seasonality of HPAI H5N1 and H5N8 viruses were analyzed. A total of 284 H5N1 outbreaks were reported since 2006, with a surge in 2021. The initial outbreaks of H5N1 were predominantly in poultry. Since 2016, 57 outbreaks of H5N8 were also reported, predominantly in wild birds. Most of the outbreaks of HPAI were reported from post monsoon onwards till pre-summer season (i.e. between October and March) with their peak in winter, in January. Apart from poultry, the bird species such as owl, Indian peafowl, lesser adjutant, crows and wild migratory birds such as demoiselle crane, northern pintail and bar-headed goose were positive for HPAI. Such studies on the seasonality of HPAI outbreaks would help in the development of prevention and control strategies. The recent human infections of H5N1 and H9N2 viruses highlight the need to strengthen surveillance in wild, resident, migratory birds and in poultry along with One Health studies in India.

Qualitative Assessment of the Clinico-Pathological Features of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Outbreaks in Commercial Poultry and Peri-Domestic Birds in Northern Nigeria

The control of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Nigeria from inception is predicated on effective biosecurity by stamping out policy but outbreaks of the disease continued to re-occur with altered clinico-pathologic manifestations. This study undertook the qualitative assessment of the clinico-pathological features of HPAI H5N1 during the 2021/2022 outbreaks in commercial poultry and peri-domestic birds in northern Nigeria. A total of 22 commercial poultry farms with 53,932 laying chickens and 3 households with 120 backyard broiler chickens, 18 indigenous chickens, 10 peafowls and 9 geese were investigated for HPAI. The clinico-pathologic manifestations observed in commercial poultry were subtle compared to previous presentations of the disease except in the peafowls, geese, broilers and indigenous chickens. The interspecies mortality rates significantly varied from 1.6% to 19.6% for laying chickens and 33.3% to 100% for broilers, indigenous chickens, geese and peafowls. Based on the history of sudden and high mortality, clinical signs and post mortem lesions observed, three diseases; HPAI, very virulent Newcastle disease and fowl cholera were drawn out as differential diagnoses. However, a tentative diagnosis of HPAI was made and samples were sent to the National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria for confirmatory diagnosis. Results of the laboratory tests conducted on the samples using one step flu A screening and duplex real time RT-PCR, and virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs confirmed HPAI H5N1 in twenty-five farms. It is concluded that the continuous though, irregular outbreaks of HPAI and emerging clinico-pathologic manifestations are pointers to failure of control and that the disease may become endemic. It is recommended that government should review its policy on the control of HPAI to include the adoption of zoned vaccination with close monitoring.

Live Wild Bird Trade and Sellers’ Biosecurity Risks in Kaduna State, Nigeria

Aims: The first highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in Africa occurred in Kaduna State, Nigeria and despite possible introduction of H5N1 virus into Nigeria through wild birds; few studies have been undertaken on the risk of live wild bird trade and sellers” biosecurity practices on introduction, spread and maintenance of diseases in the country. This study assessed wild bird trade and sellers” biosecurity risk towards disease surveillance and control in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
 Place and Duration of Study: Live wild bird markets in Kaduna State, Nigeria between March, and May 2012.
 Methodology: Live wildbird markets(LWBMs) biosecurity and sellers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices on HPAI was assessed using biosecurity checklist and structured questionnaire, respectively. Wild bird trade was studied through a market survey in LWBMs.
 Results: All sellers were male and their main source of income was the wild bird trade. Some sellers (22.7%) would report sick birds only when attempted treatment fails. Sellers kept poultry at home (78.9%) with 100% allowing poultry–wild birds contact. Over 31.6% sellers do not wash hands with soap after handling birds. About 86.4% sellers heard of AI with 84.2% hearing from radio. No sellers knew any HPAI clinical sign though 21.1% knew HPAI affects human beings and none believes HPAI affects human beings. Sellers would report HPAI outbreak to reduce losses (38.9%). None of the LWBMs was fenced with birds tied and allowed to move in 25% of LWBMs. Cages were wood/metal while fenced pens constructed from wood/wire mesh with un-cemented floor. No LWBM sourced birds from one reliable source neither were birds separated by species. In 50% of LWBMs, cages were stacked without paper or other materials lined within cages. No LWBM either stored feed in rodent proof containers or had a rodent control program. Other livestock were sold in 75% of LWBMs. Free flying birds interact with wild birds in 75% of LWBMs while free range poultry – wild bird interaction occurred in 25% of LWBMs. No seller wore protective clothing in any LWBM. All markets practice regular cleaning of cages and pens though none disinfects cages regularly. All LWBMs dispose dead birds properly by burning or burying though 25% dispose wild bird manure improperly. Over 75.9% of biosecurity features in LWBMs were risky with 76.2% being risky biosecurity practices and 80% (17/21) due to poor LWBM infrastructures. Food (31.8%), traditional medicine (45.5%) and pets (77.3%) were reported wild birds uses. There was high demand for birds of prey during election years. White stork (11.42%) and geese (9.94%) were the main birds on sale. Threatened and rear wild bird species were being traded in the LWBMs. Over 45% of birds were sourced from 9 foreign countries with majority coming from Chad. Bird prices range was ₦300 ($1.9) to ₦125,000 ($781). Mammals and reptiles were also sold in LWBMs with prices from ₦500 ($3.1) to ₦ 1.2million ($7500). Wild birds on sale in the four LWBMs were valued at ₦6,575,300 ($41,100) comprising of 71.4% of total value of animals (₦9,207,300) on sale.
 Conclusion: Sellers’ biosecurity practices was poor with high biosecurity risk due to low-risk perception. Biosecurity in LWBMs in Kaduna State was poor with high risk to introduction, spread and maintenance of HPAI. Wild bird trade in Kaduna State is linked to the global trade and could be a source for disease introduction into Nigeria. There is need for sellers to be trained on HPAI and other emerging infectious diseases and routine surveillance of EIDs in LWBMs. The wild bird trade should be legalized and regulated.

Evaluation of a New Viral Vaccine Vector in Mice and Rhesus Macaques: J Paramyxovirus Expressing Hemagglutinin of Influenza A Virus H5N1.

H5N1, an avian influenza virus, is known to circulate in many Asian countries, such as Bangladesh, China, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Vietnam. The current FDA-approved H5N1 vaccine has a moderate level of efficacy. A safe and effective vaccine is needed to prevent outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in humans. Nonsegmented negative-sense single-stranded viruses (NNSVs) are widely used as a vector to develop vaccines for humans, animals, and poultry. NNSVs stably express foreign genes without integrating with the host genome. J paramyxovirus (JPV) is a nonsegmented negative-strand RNA virus and a member of the proposed genus Jeilongvirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. JPV-specific antibodies have been detected in rodents, bats, humans, and pigs, but the virus is not associated with disease in any species other than mice. JPV replicates in the respiratory tract of mice and efficiently expresses the virus-vectored foreign genes in tissue culture cells. In this work, we explored JPV as a vector for developing an H5N1 vaccine using intranasal delivery. We incorporated hemagglutinin (HA) of H5N1 into the JPV genome by replacing the small hydrophobic (SH) gene to generate a recombinant JPV expressing HA (rJPV-ΔSH-H5). A single intranasal administration of rJPV-ΔSH-H5 protected mice from a lethal HPAI H5N1 challenge. Intranasal vaccination of rJPV-ΔSH-H5 in rhesus macaques elicited antigen-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. This work demonstrates that JPV is a promising vaccine vector. IMPORTANCE A highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in Southeast Asia destroyed millions of birds. Transmission of H5N1 into humans resulted in deaths in many countries. In this work, we developed a novel H5N1 vaccine candidate using J paramyxovirus (JPV) as a vector and demonstrated that JPV is an efficacious vaccine vector in animals. Nonsegmented negative-sense single-stranded viruses (NNSVs) stably express foreign genes without integrating into the host genome. JPV, an NNSV, replicates efficiently in the respiratory tract and induces robust immune responses.

Response to reviews of Containing Contagion by Sara E. Davies

It was always known that implementing the IHR was going to be a long and difficult journey for many countries in the region, one pursued alongside other equally important health goals such as universal health care and vaccination coverage The COVID-19 pandemic has clearly demonstrated the cost of failing to incorporate a human rights framework as one of the essential core capacity requirements for meeting the IHR The Asia Pacific Strategy for Emerging Infectious Diseases (APSED) was developed to assist the two regional offices member states come to grips with the capacities required under the revised IHR I found that though there were profound differences between them, overall, ASEAN states had responded positively to the concept of shared infectious disease surveillance and the reporting of infectious disease outbreaks, both endemic and emerging diseases, to neighbouring states [Extracted from the article] Copyright of Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use This abstract may be abridged No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract (Copyright applies to all Abstracts )

Something wicked this way comes: How well did UK newspapers support the public debate of Avian Influenza as a wicked problem?

The news media in general, and newspapers in particular, are supposed to provide a forum for public debate. These expectations of news media take on a heightened relevance in the case of wicked problems precisely because of the irreducible complexity, the inherent tensions, and the multiplicity of stakeholders and conflicting interests involved in such issues. Both their material complexity and lack of consensus make wicked problems difficult to address. This study uses British newspaper coverage of the H5N1 avian influenza outbreak (2003–2008) to determine if under near ideal conditions, newspaper coverage in the UK is compatible with the expectation that newspapers provide a forum that supports constructive societal debate of a complex, wicked problem. We chose to work with avian influenza because it was extensively covered, evidence rich, and not captive to clear partisan constructions. Our frame analysis examined 254 relevant newspaper articles published in seven national circulation outlets between 2003 and 2008. Newspaper coverage did reflect multiple problem definitions and causal interpretations of avian influenza, which is consistent with the expectation that the media inform and open up public debate. Coverage did not, however, link avian flu to other related issues, engage in systemic contestation or problematise structure. Finally, we found that, despite heterogeneous problem definitions, there was near consensus on a single technical solution. This coverage does not appear to support the open, constructive and informed public debate whose promise justifies the privileges given to news media.

Strengthened Monitoring of H5 Avian Influenza Viruses in External Environment in Hubei, 2018.

The contamination status of H5 avian influenza viruses and distribution of subtypes of H5N1 and H5N6 in poultry-related environment of Hubei areas were investigated. Urban and rural live poultry markets, poultry farms, intensive livestock farms and other monitoring types of 103 counties in 17 cities were selected in Hubei. Wiping samples from cage surface, wiping samples from chopping board, fecal specimens and other environmental samples were collected and tested by real-time RT-PCR using primers and probes of influenza A, avian influenza of H5, N1 and N6 from December 2017 to March 2018. The avian influenza virus positive rate was compared among different monitoring sites, samples, time and regions. Totally, 7132 environmental samples were collected in 1634 monitoring points with a positive rate of 2.24%. The positive rate of H5 avian influenza virus was the highest in urban and rural live poultry markets (3.44%, χ2=61.329, P<0.05) in 6 monitoring sites and wiping samples from chopping board (5.46%, χ2=67.072, P<0.05) in 6 sample types. H5N6 avian influenza viruses were detected more in eastern than western Hubei, and H5N6 avian influenza viruses were detected only in Xiangyang city of western Hubei. There were important high-risk places of human infection with H5 avian influenza virus in urban and rural live poultry markets and the poultry slaughtering plants. H5N6 has been the predominant subtype of H5 avian influenza viruses in the eastern and western Hubei and H5N6 avian influenza viruses were still present in a few areas of Hubei. Outbreaks of human H5N1 and H5N6 avian influenza remain at risk in Hubei province.

Determining highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza clade 2.3.2.1c seroprevalence in ducks, Purbalingga, Central Java, Indonesia

Background and Aim:In Indonesia, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks in poultry are still reported. The disease causes a decrease in egg production and an increase in mortality; this has an impact on the economic losses of farmers. Several studies have considered that ducks play a role in the HPAI endemicity in the country; however, little is known about whether or not the type of duck farming is associated with HPAI H5 virus infection, particularly within clade 2.3.2.1c, which has been predominantly found in poultry since 2014. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the HPAI seroprevalence for H5 subtype clade 2.3.2.1c in laying ducks that are kept intensively and nomadically and to determine the associated risk factors.Materials and Methods:Forty-nine duck farmers were randomly selected from ten sub-districts in Purbalingga District, Central Java, Indonesia; a cross-sectional study was implemented to collect field data. Based on an expected HPAI prevalence level of 10%, estimated accuracy of ± 5%, and 95% confidence interval (CI), the total sample size was calculated at 36 individuals. Samples must be multiplied by 7 to reduce bias; thus, 252 ducks were taken as samples in this study. Considering that the maintenance and duck handling were uniform and farmers complained that the effect of activity to take duck samples would reduce egg production, this study only took samples from 245 ducks (oropharyngeal swabs and serum). Those samples were taken from five birds on each farm. Hemagglutination inhibition tests examined the serum samples for HPAI H5 Clade 2.3.2.1c, and pool swab samples (five swabs in one viral media transport) were examined by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) test for influenza Type A and H5 subtype virus. Information regarding farm management was obtained using a questionnaire; face-to-face interviews were conducted with the duck farmers using native Javanese language.Results:Serum and swabs from 245 ducks were collected in total. For individual birds, 54.69% (134/245) of serum samples were H5 seropositive. Seroprevalence among nomadic ducks was 59.28% (95% CI: 0.48-0.61), which was higher than among intensively farmed ducks (48.57%, 95% CI: 0.38-0.58). Farm-level seroprevalence was 50% (95% CI: 0.30-0.69) for nomadic ducks but only 28.57% (95% CI: 0.11-0.51) for intensively farmed ducks. The farm-level virus prevalence (proportion of flocks with at least one bird positive for influenza Type A) was 17.85% (95% CI: 0.07-0.35) for nomadic ducks and 4.76% (1/21) for intensively farmed ducks (95% CI: 0.008-0.23). All influenza Type A positive samples were negative for the H5 subtype, indicating that another HA subtype AI viruses might have been circulating in ducks in the study area. A relationship between duck farms that were H5 seropositive and their maintenance system was present; however, this relationship was not significant, the nomadic duck system detected 2 times higher H5-seropositive ducks than the intensive farming system (OR: 2.16, 95% CI: 0.33-14.31).Conclusion:This study found that the seroprevalence of HPAI in the duck population level in Purbalingga was 54.69% and demonstrated that the nomadic duck farming system was more likely to acquire HPAI H5 infection than the intensive farming duck system. Other risk factors should be further investigated as the diversity of the farming system is partially related to HPAI H5 infection.

The Pattern of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Outbreaks in South Asia.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 has caused severe illnesses in poultry and in humans. More than 15,000 outbreaks in domestic birds from 2005 to 2018 and 861 human cases from 2003 to 2019 were reported across the world to OIE (Office International des Epizooties) and WHO (World Health Organization), respectively. We reviewed and summarized the spatial and temporal distribution of HPAI outbreaks in South Asia. During January 2006 to June 2019, a total of 1063 H5N1 outbreaks in birds and 12 human cases for H5N1 infection were reported to OIE and WHO, respectively. H5N1 outbreaks were detected more in the winter season than the summer season (RR 5.11, 95% CI: 4.28–6.1). Commercial poultry were three times more likely to be infected with H5N1 than backyard poultry (RR 3.47, 95% CI: 2.99–4.01). The highest number of H5N1 outbreaks was reported in 2008, and the smallest numbers were reported in 2014 and 2015. Multiple subtypes of avian influenza viruses and multiple clades of H5N1 virus were detected. Early detection and reporting of HPAI viruses are needed to control and eliminate HPAI in South Asia.