Ottoman History Research Articles

A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF SULTAN MURAD IIS POLITICAL STRATEGIES IN CONSOLIDATING THE OTTOMAN SULTANATE

This study examines the political strategies implemented by Sultan Murad II in consolidating the Ottoman Sultanate during his reign. Sultan Murad IIs rule marked a pivotal phase in Ottoman history, during which he successfully unified the empire and restored its political stability after facing threats of power struggles, civil wars, internal rebellions, and external interventions. This study employs a qualitative approach through historical research design and content analysis. The data for the study were collected through document analysis and subsequently analyzed using thematic methods. The analysis reveals that, in the process of consolidating power, territory, and political stability within the Ottoman Sultanate, Sultan Murad II adopted a strategy that went beyond simply relying on the peaceful policies upheld by his father, Sultan Mehmed I. He also employed a measured military strategy, practicing a limited offensive approach. Additionally, the centralization policy of his grandfather was reinstated, albeit in a more effective and tolerant manner.

Voices of Desolation

Abstract The paper deals with the phenomenon of the so-called Great Flight, which could be (within the context of Ottoman history) considered equivalent of Thirty Years’ War and its impacts in Central-Europe and elsewhere. Armenian primary sources depict this time generally as “bitter times of sorrow”, making references on forced deportations of urban or rural population (surgun), climate changes, crop failures, epidemics, raids of djelâli or levend rebels, war campaigns and scorched earth, famines and others. To explain the phenomenon of Armenian identity strategies during so turbulent 17th century helps to understand better later development, as well as National Revival period, while many contemporary topoi, such as the lamentation over the lost homeland and the emphasized motif of exile, remained valid until the mid-19th century only to be further modified and re-actualized.

Social History of Islamic Banking and First Example: Bank-I Awqāf

The cash waqf was a special category of Islamic endowment and played an important role in the economic/financial history of the Ottoman Empire. As such, it can be considered an important Islamic financial institution that facilitated the flow of funds from those who could save to those who needed capital, i.e. primarily entrepreneurs as well as the general public. This institution is also considered one of the most important Ottoman contributions to Islamic civilisations. Ottoman scholars have been discussing Islamic banking since Suleiman the Magnificent (1574). Islamic banking was known in the Ottoman state as Mu'amalah al-Shar'iyyah, which we can simply call murâbahah. The Ottoman state established the "Awariḍ Akcasi Sandiklari", which means "The Box of Waqf Money". Ottoman scholars preferred "Mudaraba" and murâbahah or qarḍ. This practice continued with the establishment of the Awqaf Bank in 1914. On 1914, the Ottoman Ministry of Awqaf decided to establish the first Islamic bank, Bank-i Ewqaf, with its central branch in Istanbul and possible new branches in all provinces. The bank's system was entirely Mu'amalah al-Shar'iyyah or simply Murâbahah. This bank had the right to issue bonds, certificates, transfer money, etc.

Resilient locusts, ignorant people, modern state and scientific knowledge: a late Ottoman human-animal-state history

This article revisits Ottoman history by exploring the enduring relationship between humans and locusts through an animal-human history approach, emphasizing their ‘companionship’ and combined agencies. Instead of focusing on a specific region, the study highlights an empire-wide locust agency by examining the dynamics among humans, locusts, and state policies within the framework of the institutionalization of science. The study traces the evolution of Ottoman locust policies from the Hamidian era’s shift to standardized methods relying on human labor, to the CUP era’s ambitious emphasis on science and increased state racism, categorizing people as ‘ignorant inferiors’. It argues that while scientific knowledge was used to justify state racism to manage locusts and police humans, the resilience of locusts and their relationship with ‘ignorant’ humans and their surrounding environment forced policy changes. By integrating locust agency, this study offers a holistic perspective on the Ottoman past, revealing how locusts, humans, and the state continually influenced each other, and contested the nature of biopolitics and scientific knowledge.

Introduction

Abstract The Third International Süleymaniye Symposium explored the Köprülü Era (1656-1710) in Ottoman history, emphasizing new sources and approaches. Scholars from Turkey, Europe, and the U.S. convened to examine the Köprülü grand viziers’ careers and times. In the current special focus section, Yasir Yılmaz, Halef Cevrioğlu, Elizabeth Lobenwein, Georg B. Michels, and Christopher Whitehead offer innovative perspectives, drawing on brand new archival material. We advocate for a comparative approach to the Ottoman grand vizierate, highlight the significance of Habsburg archives in Ottomanist scholarship, debunk new short-term and long-term historical dimensions in the making of the family, and ask new questions about how we should interpret the Köprülü expansionism.

The Early Career of Köprülü Mehmed Pasha: An Archival Reconstruction

Abstract The grand vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (d. 1661) stands out as one of the most celebrated figures of Ottoman history, but despite his prominence, the basic contours of his earlier life remain largely unknown, and most of what is known derives from narrative accounts produced long after his death. This study utilizes archival sources to reconstruct Köprülü's career prior to his 1656 promotion to the grand vizierate. It reveals a major gap in the narrative sources: in 1653, when Köprülü is supposed to have been politically inactive, he was actually serving as a provincial governor in the sensitive region of Karaman in south-central Anatolia. At that time, a rebel faction was active in the area, and evidence indicates that Köprülü aligned with them. Elements of this faction, under Abaza Hasan's leadership, would later go on to rebel against Köprülü himself in 1658. Köprülü's ties to this rebel faction stand in sharp contrast to his later historical image as a paragon of order and central authority. An understanding of this period thus permits a reevaluation not only of Köprülü's political character, but also of how his supporters worked to construct his image in the aftermath of Abaza Hasan's rebellion.

Crimean War to Empire’s Fall: The English Periodicals of Late Ottoman Capital

This study investigates the impact of English-language periodicals in the Ottoman Empire from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries, offering an overview of their inception, development, varied content, and strategies for engaging readers amidst commercial considerations. Focusing on periodicals from Constantinople, this study underscores their distinct contributions to the media landscape, illuminating the period’s sociocultural, political, and linguistic changes. The research draws upon primary sources, including periodicals, memoirs, and archival documents, to enhance understanding of the role played by these periodicals in shaping the region’s media outlet, public opinion, and cultural and linguistic identity. Overall, the study uncovers a new overview of a transformative period in Ottoman history, emphasizing the enduring influence of English-language periodicals on the region’s press industry and highlighting the Anglophone presence in Asia Minor.

From Janissaries to Leaders: The Continuing History of the Kuloghlis in Libya

This article delves into the intricate presence of a unique Turkish descendant group, known as the Kuloghlis, within the Maghreb region, with a particular focus on Libya, shedding light on their profound historical significance to the Ottoman State and their enduring influence in the region’s socio-political landscape. Originating from Turkish Janissaries who established matrimonial ties with indigenous women, the Kuloghlis played a pivotal role in facilitating Ottoman dominion over the Maghreb from the 16th century onwards. Despite their gradual decline in significance following Sultan Abdulhamit II’s era, they maintained a resilient connection with Türkiye and experienced a resurgence in prominence following Libya’s independence. Despite a lack of comprehensive literature on this group, this article underscores their lasting importance, emphasising their continued sway in Libyan politics, transcending various governmental regimes. Employing document analysis and literature scanning as qualitative research methods, the article illuminates the Kuloghlis’ integral role in Ottoman history while highlighting their ongoing relevance in post-independence Libya, where many influential political figures trace their lineage back to this distinctive group.

EXAMINATION OF CONSTITUTIONALIST MOVEMENTS AND CONSTITUTIONS IN TERMS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRACY IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Constitutionalism involves curbing state power, protecting fundamental rights, and defending citizens' rights against the state. Aligned with democratic theory, it's grounded in the concept of human dignity, advocating for the autonomy and participation of vulnerable individuals in community governance. Democratic theory emphasizes the crucial right of citizens to influence the selection of lawmakers in a free society. Constitutionalism insists on honoring human dignity and values, affirming citizens' right to democratic participation while ensuring clear constraints on their governments, even when in line with the majority's preferences. Originating with the Magna Carta in 1215, constitutionalism reached Ottoman lands about six centuries later. Ottoman constitutional movements, commencing with the 1808 Sened-i Ittifak and progressing through the 1839 Tanzimat Edict, the 1856 Islahat (Reform) Edict, and the 1876 Constitution, were influenced by both internal and external factors. These movements, despite lacking public demand, played a pivotal role in introducing democratic values and institutions in Ottoman history, including the country's first parliamentary election.

Tarantino in the Ottoman Empire: Glorious Viziers, Pulp Fiction, and Scrambled Narratives

I wanted to break up the narration, not to be a wise guy, a show guy, but to make the film dramatically better that way. . . . A novelist would think nothing about starting in the middle. And if characters in a novel go back and tell past things, it's not a flashback, it's just telling a story. I think movies should benefit from the novel's freedoms.— Quentin Tarantino1I wrote a prosopography twenty years ago. I published a biography two years ago. In the first case, I offered the collective biography of 282 servants of the late Ottoman period (1839–1909).2 In the second case, I presented the monograph of a grand vizier from the second half of the 18th century, Halil Hamid Pasha (1736–85).3 In the former, I delivered an academic work (stemming from a PhD dissertation) focused on the study of the careers of central and territorial administrators. In the latter, I recounted the rise and fall of the head of the Sublime Porte. A priori, these two books had nothing in common, except that they dealt with pashas. If I mention them together here, it is not to describe the personal evolution of my research. It is to shed some light on an observation that is regularly made, that is, of the inadequacies of the biographical genre in Ottoman history.4 It is to reflect on how to remedy this situation.

Missionary Activity of A. G. Ibragimov (1857–1944) in Japan

The paper describes missionary work of A. G. Ibragimov in Japan and his relations with various strata of Japanese society during that period. The main works in Japanese are those of Japanese Turkologists: Misawa Nobuo, Komatsu Hisao and others, including those whose research work focuses on the history of the Ottoman Empire. Ibragimov visited Japan three times. Very little information is available about the first and the second visits; however, the third visit is described in considerable detail in his own diaries, among other things. His communication with the Japanese (who were traditionally considered ardent nationalists) aroused as much interest as his communication with representatives of the ruling class, which, as many researchers believe, could have influenced Japanese politics in 1930s. Ibragimov’s social circle included: Ohara Bunkei, the founder of the Ajia Gikai and the first Japanese Muslim; Toyama Mitsuru, the founder of the Gen’yosha and the leader of the Japanese right-wing movement; Nakano Jotaro (Tenshin), a Japanese thinker and one of the ideologists of the Ajia Gikai; Kono Hironaka, a member of the lower house of the Japanese parliament and the Minister of Agriculture and Trade 1915–1916; Inukai Tsuyoshi, the Minister of Internal Affairs and the Minister of Education as well as the Prime Minister of Japan during the last years of his life; many other representatives of the upper class, including close associates and members of the imperial family. Ibragimov’s activities lead to the emergence of the first Muslim societies in Japan; many representatives of the Japanese nobility and ordinary people converted to Islam and even performed Hajj. Tokyo saw the construction of one of the largest mosques in Japan. It may be argued that the Japanese society witnessed a spark of interest in Islam; moreover, Japan established ties with Muslim countries in the Middle East. He contributed to the establishment of Pan-Asian societies, which functioned until the end of World War II. He was engaged in public awareness campaign as well as teaching: one of his students was Izutsu Toshihiko, the greatest Japanese specialist in Islamic studies, a polyglot and professor of the University of Tokyo.

19. Yüzyılda Azerbaycan ve Osmanlı Türk Aydınları Arasındaki Etkileşim

The 19th century in the history of the Ottoman Empire and Azerbaijan was marked by a number of political events that led to a change in the direction of the socio-cultural development of the Turkic societies in both countries. The reforms of the first half of the 19th century in the field of education and culture with their development of new socio-political programs, the emergence of new socio-cultural phenomena, new genres of literature, ideological and political trends gave rise to a new social stratum - the intelligentsia. This stratum, as the main bearer of the advanced ideas of the time, will play a significant role in the enlightenment of their own peoples. And the interaction between representatives of both intellectual circles will contribute to the spread of new knowledge and ideas throughout the region. The present article deals with the interrelations between the Azerbaijani and Ottoman intelligentsia in the 19th century. The interpretation and analysis of historical context via structural-diachronic methods help us better understand the nature of these relations and the effect they had on the events of the early 20th century.

THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF TURKIYE IN MALAYSIA: OTTOMAN HISTORY IN MALAYSIAN SECONDARY HISTORY TEXTBOOKS (1989-2022)

This article explores the teaching of Ottoman history and the image of the Ottomans through a close and critical reading of Malaysian secondary history textbooks used between 1989 and 2022. It argues that Malaysian secondary history textbooks focus mainly on the political and military aspects of sixteenth-century Ottoman history. They do not, consciously or subconsciously, make detailed reference to political and socio-economic turning points in nineteenth-century Ottoman history. Sejarah Tingkatan 2 (History: Form 2), one of the history textbooks examined in the article, exceptionally discusses the impact of Ottoman pan-Islamism and Turkish nationalism on the political and religious thought of the Malays. Nonetheless, history textbooks published after the 2000s have not touched on these important issues. In history textbooks, the Ottoman Empire is regarded as one of the significant states of the Islamic world; therefore, Ottoman history is analyzed within the framework of Islamic history and Islamic civilization. The portrayal of Ottomans is positive and favourable. There are no distortions, biases, or stereotypes concerning Ottoman history in Malaysian secondary history textbooks.

Ottoman Landscapes: Over Mountains, Plains, and Waterways

ABSTRACT Two recent works in Ottoman history, Faisal Husain’s Rivers of the Sultan and Chris Gratien’s The Unsettled Plain have brought environmental themes to the forefront of the field. These works demonstrate the importance of attending to seemingly peripheral areas like the highlands of southern Anatolia and the Tigris-Euphrates basin in Iraq, where in fact central issues of Ottoman imperialism are most visible. In these works, we find the management of diverse ecological zones as a critical feature of how the Ottoman state functioned. By centering the experiences of people, animals, plants, and disease across highlands, waterways, farms, pastures, and marshes, Husain and Gratien have prepared the way for a more inclusive form of historical writing in Ottoman studies.

Finding the Guardians of Royal Blood: Observations on the Supply of eunuchs to the Harem in the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate through case studies and documents

Research objectives: The first aim of this study, which deals with the supply process of the eunuchs, who formed the backbone of the harem organization in the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, is to determine how the career of the eunuchs began in the palace of the sultan or the khan. Research materials: The main sources of data for this research are documents held within the Department of Ottoman Archives of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey Directorate of State. Upon these documents, Ottoman and Crimean chronicles of the period were examined and evaluated. Research and novelty of the research: Both the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate established harem organizations and started employing eunuchs soon after the foundation of the state. These people, who were called eunuchs or castrates and had lost their masculinity due to natural or unnatural causes, were the backbone of the harem organization. It was found that the main method for supplying eunuchs to the harem was purchasing them from specialized merchants. Both states made efforts to identify children who had lost their masculinity due to natural causes and employ them in the harem. More over, in a very rare event in Ottoman history, Gazanfer and Cafer Aghas volunteered to be castrated out of a desire to be close to the Sultan during the reign of Selim II. The Ottoman administration paid special attention to social as well as physical characteristics of the eunuchs to be employed, and, for example, preferred that they learn Turkish in the Ottoman harem, under their own supervision. It was also observed that the Crimean Khanate attached great importance to the harem organization as in the Ottoman Empire. However, it has been revealed that the institutionalization in the harem organization was underdeveloped than in the Ottoman harem and that at least some of the eunuchs were part of the khan’s entourage and moved away from the palace when the khan was dethroned. It’s also been revealed that sometimes the information in the primary sources contradicts with the documents produced by the bureaucracy of the period. It’s been determined that a special emphasis was placed on the shaping of the eunuchs with the Ottoman high culture, and those who somehow lost their manhood, even if they were Muslims, lost their individual identity and were transformed into an officer belonging to the state.

The Crimean War and Its Impact on International Relations Until 1856 AD

The Crimean Peninsula is the peninsula where one of the most significant world wars began, which had a direct and profound impact on the main party in this war, the Ottoman Empire, and on the European countries that caused this war, especially Russia, the country with great ambitions and interests in this region. Therefore, the Crimean War is a major turning point in the history of the Ottoman Empire and the history of its peoples, in which they found the appropriate opportunity to be liberated from the Ottoman control in order to achieve their independence, like Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro.

“The Clash of Theoretizations”: the Case of the Ottoman Empire in the XVIIIth century

Article deals with some common theoretical questions and theories regarding the Ottoman Empire as an interesting matter to prove them right or wrong, and how they work on particular historical material. For such reasons several key theories will be used: modernization theory, world-system analysis, divergence theory, historical sociology, class struggle theory, another point of view is Ray Dalio’s concept of “big curve” and economic cycles theory, depicted in Clement Juglar, Tugan-Baranovsky and Nikolai Kondratiev works along with Oded Lagor’s theory of unified growth. Author tries to imply how these theories explain or could explain the magistral way of development in the XVIII century and how Ottoman history is comparable to other states. Main results are next: from modernization theory prospects Ottomans faced couple short periods of what we can call modernization (improvement or reestablishing institutions and the way they perform their strict duties) during the “Tulip Era” (1703-1730), during major confrontations with European powers (1750-1770) and by the beginning or reign of Selim III from 1789. All those endeavors were different in spheres. lasting and methods, but pursuing one goal – to emulate European experience using Islamic and strictly Ottoman background – creating a well-organized state, able to withstand Europe. Due to world-system analysis in the XVIII century Ottoman Empire inadvertently lost its superpower status, diminishing to regional power. Also, they shifted from semi-periphery to periphery, a process which has been proceeding for all of the XVIII century and ended in 1839. From a sociological point of view, Ottoman society began to polarize – both in territorial and functional ways. Territorial – local elites began to grow in wealth and question central government power, creating local myths, dealing with non-Muslim and tribal minorities. Functional – due to absence of large-scale industrial manufacturing and consequently absence of middle class in European view, Ottoman trading elites profited as mediators for Europeans and consequently didn’t grow as “Third power” to provide pressure on their government. Ray Dalio’s “big curve” concept was chosen due to its nearly absence in current research, and it is shown that it is too abstract and uses non-qualified criteria to make any probable conclusion, whether state is fine or on the verge of collapse. Economic activity cycles concept shows that Ottomans situated in the wholesale trend of the XVIII century – diminishing prices for grain and rising activity in the credit sphere.

In memory of Zafer Toprak: pioneering scholar of economic and social history of the late Ottoman and early Republican periods

In memory of Zafer Toprak: pioneering scholar of economic and social history of the late Ottoman and early Republican periods

Barbaros Hayreddin’in Anıları, Gerçekliği, Önemi ve Tarihsel Değeri

Personal memoirs are among the most important sources that researchers and historians rely on in writing history. This is because it includes information, testimonies and details that we rarely find in other traditional sources. This is because the memoirist is usually not a historian in the strict sense of the term. Rather, it is usually a personality that contributed to the making of the events that appear in the memoirs. Also, the notes were not written or dictated by their author in his capacity as a professional writer; Rather, he does so in order to testify to the events that he experienced. Whether he saw it himself, contributed to its making, or heard it from someone who was a witness to it.
 Despite the importance of memoirs in the history of nations and peoples, they are criticized for being subjective, personal, and sometimes even narcissistic. This is when its author makes himself the center of events, and depicts him as the most influential in the events he narrates. In view of this, we find that he often ignores the role of others in making events, so the memoirs for this reason and others lack objectivity and impartiality.
 Whatever the evaluation of Khair al-Din Barbarossa’s personal memoirs were, they are among the few ones that dated the first phase of the history of the Ottoman rule of Algeria in its early stages. By looking closely at these memoirs, we find that they are rich as far as matter, information and details are concerned and that are rarely found in other sources that talk about this important stage in the history of the Ottoman Empire and the history of Algeria in the first stage of Ottoman rule.

Seyfi Kenan & Selçuk Akşin Somel, Dimensions of Transformation in the Ottoman Empire from the Late Medieval Age to Modernity: In Memory of Metin Kunt

Dimensions of Transformation in the Ottoman Empire is a book dedicated to honoring the life and academic career of Prof. Metin Kunt. Unfortunately, due to a significant delay in its publication, this book could only be released posthumously following his passing. Kunt, a distinguished scholar, made noteworthy contributions to Ottoman history, establishing himself as a pioneering figure across multiple disciplines. His unique perspectives on Ottoman studies and broad research interests have played a pivotal role in advancing scholarly understanding in various fields. As an individual who was once a student of Kunt and holds a particular interest in the early modern period, I regrettably observed that his remarkable contributions to the field have not received adequate recognition within the realm of revisionist historians. Furthermore, his pioneering work remains undervalued, failing to receive the level of appreciation it rightfully deserves. I hope that this book, dedicated to his memory, will make a humble contribution to the academic reception of Prof. Kunt’s works and scholarly heritage.