Ottoman Architecture Research Articles

Heritage Diplomacy, Neo-Ottomanism, and a Local Quest for a New Place of Worship: The Politics of Mosque Building in Batumi, Georgia

ABSTRACT Over the past few decades, Turkey has funded numerous construction and building rehabilitation initiatives in foreign countries. Amidst such efforts, this article scrutinises the implications of Turkey’s heritage diplomacy tied to Ottoman architecture and how it has the potential to overshadow the desires of local populations. It points to one such case in Batumi, Georgia, where a replica of the 1868 Aziziye Mosque was proposed as a part of Georgia-Turkey cross-border heritage exchanges in the 2010s. Here, Turkey’s fostering of the project exacerbated local Muslim Georgian efforts to construct a mosque of their own in the city. The case demonstrates how heritage diplomacy can land poorly, shining light on a range of broader domestic impacts to urban planning and national identity, electoral politics and community social cohesion. Instead of seeing local Muslims as passive bystanders, the article demonstrates how they asserted their rights, building a temporary open-air mosque and redirecting the focus back towards their particular needs. The findings are based on a long-term study of the politics of urban development in Batumi using qualitative methods. They contribute to a growing body of scholarship in critical heritage studies, highlighting connections to public policy, diplomatic relations, and religious activism.

Characterization of İscehisar Andesite (Afyonkarahisar-Turkey), Used as a Building Stone Source of Historical Heritages from Ancient Times to the Present

Most historical structures that have survived to the present day are constructed from natural stones. One such natural stone is andesite. This study conducted a series of characterization studies on andesites used as building stones in Afyonkarahisar (Turkey). The building stones in question were determined by the petrographic-mineralogical (polarizing microscope, XRD, SEM), chemical, pore diameter distribution, and physico-mechanical properties. Although the İscehisar andesite is not as well-known as the İscehisar marble, it is a volcanic rock widely used in cultural heritage sites such as mosques, fountains, and bridges that have survived from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods to the present day in Afyonkarahisar. Despite the presence of pink, brown, and gray-black colors in the İscehisar andesite, it is evident that the preference in historical buildings is mainly for gray-black variants. Andesite, marble, and limestone, such as İscehisar Bridge from the Hellenistic period, Kırkgöz Bridge from the Byzantine era, Altıgöz Bridge from the Seljuk period, and Kanlı Göl Bridge from the Ottoman period, were used together in various combinations. Mosques are another group of structures in which andesite and other volcanic rocks are heavily used, such as bridges. While tuff is commonly used in examples of Seljuk and Ottoman architecture that have survived to the present day, andesite and other volcanic rocks along with bricks have also been used to construct dozens of mosques. Andesites found in the İscehisar region continue to be widely extracted, cut, and shaped using different surface processing techniques and are used today.

An Authentic Example of Ottoman-Era Wooden Summerhouses; Cemil Topuzlu Kiosk

The beginning of the 18th century is known as the “Westernization Period” in Ottoman architecture. It was in this period that Western-born architectural movements found their way into the Ottoman Empire. This was also a time in which new types of structures emerged in Ottoman architecture as the Western influence continued to permeate both religious and civil architecture. This impact also affected the Ottoman culture of housing, leading to important changes in residential structures. The new cultural elements arriving from the West began to be apparent in the plans, facades, interiors, and decorative components of the homes of the affluent, most of which were built by Western architects. This was a time in which lifestyles were changing, and especially in the capital of Istanbul, a rich assortment of residential architecture was expressed in styles that included the Neo-Baroque, Neo-Gothic, Orientalism, Art Nouveau, Eclecticism, Swiss Châlet, and Late Victorian. One of the new types of structures that appeared in this period was the summerhouse. While these houses belonged to the wealthy Ottoman elite and reflected the traditional Ottoman residential fabric in their plans and styles, a large number carried the architectural characteristics of the summerhouses and mansions of the West. The aim of this article is to describe an authentic example of the group of wooden summerhouses that were outstanding products of Ottoman residential architecture in the 19th century, at a time when the Empire’s cultural norms were turning toward the West. The characteristics of the plans of these buildings, the configuration of their facades and decorative elements will be presented, as will other information on the wooden summerhouses of the period.

Multi-Sensor Image and Range-Based Techniques for the Geometric Documentation and the Photorealistic 3D Modeling of Complex Architectural Monuments.

The selection of the optimal methodology for the 3D geometric documentation of cultural heritage is a subject of high concern in contemporary scientific research. As a matter of fact, it requires a multi-source data acquisition process and the fusion of datasets from different sensors. This paper aims to demonstrate the workflow for the proper implementation and integration of geodetic, photogrammetric and laser scanning techniques so that high-quality photorealistic 3D models and other documentation products can be generated for a complicated, large-dimensional architectural monument and its surroundings. As a case study, we present the monitoring of the Mehmet Bey Mosque, which is a landmark in the city of Serres and a significant remaining sample of the Ottoman architecture in Greece. The surveying campaign was conducted in the context of the 2022-2023 annual workshop of the Interdepartmental Program of Postgraduate Studies "Protection Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Monuments" of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and it served as a geometric background for interdisciplinary cooperation and decision-making on the monument restoration process. The results of our study encourage the fusion of terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetric datasets for the 3D modeling of the mosque, as they supplement each other as regards geometry and texture.

A New Element in Interior Decoration in 18th and 19th Century Ottoman Mansions: Istanbul Panoramas of Kalemişi as Wall Paintings

With the start of the Period of Westernization in Ottoman architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, not only palaces and shoreside residences of the sultans, but also kiosks (köşk), mansions (konak), summer pavilions (kasır), and other civil structures such as waterfront residences (yalı) came under the influence of European styles in interior decoration. A significant movement in civil architecture began in this period and it was first the Baroque, Rocaille and Empire styles that made their imprint on Ottoman structures, followed subsequently by other Western trends. A new element that appeared in the program of westernization in architecture that was applied to palaces, shoreside residences of the sultan, kiosks, pavilions and yalı’s was kalemişi wall paintings. The subjects of this decorative artwork, most of which was created by foreign architects, were landscapes and urban panoramas rather than geometric or floral decorations. The city panoramas mostly depicted Istanbul, the capital of both Anatolia and the Balkans. The aim of this article is to introduce examples of structures of Ottoman residential architecture that began, as from the second half of the 18th century, to boast of kalemişi wall paintings and to demonstrate how those depicting urban panoramas were primarily devoted to Istanbul and embodied a reflection of the influence these paintings had on the westernization movement.

Ottoman Architecture in Algeria: Current State and Prospects for Contemporary Functional Adaptation

Ottoman Architecture in Algeria: Current State and Prospects for Contemporary Functional Adaptation

Enhancing the worship experience: a quantitative approach to the Şehzade and Süleymaniye discussion

Süleyman I and Mimar Sinan stand as influential figures of the Ottoman Empire, leaving an indelible mark on Istanbul's cultural and architectural landscape. Built by Sinan for Süleyman the Magnificent, Şehzade Mehmed and Süleymaniye Mosques in particular have been subjects of debate. Şehzade is described by many scholars as a peak in sixteenth century Ottoman architecture, whilst Süleymaniye, built shortly after, is viewed as an architectural regression. This article investigates the transition from the symmetrical quatrefoil scheme of Şehzade to Süleymaniye’s basilica-like design with quantitative methods, based on certain design principles. Spatial perception, visibility, and daylight analyses were conducted on models and plan drawings based on 3D point cloud data obtained from terrestrial laser scanning. Spatial perception analyses suggest that Sinan intended to influence users’ perception with the formation of the superstructure. Resulting visibility levels of certain focal points in the sanctum area prove how they were pivotal in the design process. Finally, daylight analyses results indicate how daylight was also a significant design criterion for Sinan. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that Süleymaniye’s floor plan is an improved design addressing the spatial issues that exist in Şehzade, highlighting Mimar Sinan’s effort to enhance the worship experience.

Facade Analysis of Traditional Buildings on 12 Eylul Street in Mudanya’s Giritli Neighborhood

Mudanya, a district situated in the province of Bursa, has held significant port city status since ancient times, retaining its importance to the present day. Within this district, Giritli Neighborhood stands as one of the earliest settlements in Mudanya. Turkish and Greek people lived together in the region for a long time. These two cultures created varieties in the region socially and physically. With Greeks residing mostly in the coastal area, Turkish people predominantly lived inland. With Greeks residing mostly in the coastal area and Turkish people predominantly living inland. Therefore, different qualities can be observed in the coastal and inland areas in terms of environmental and architectural qualities. Mudanya boasts a plethora of historical structures constructed in diverse architectural styles spanning various eras. Notably, 12 Eylül Street in Giritli Neighborhood has emerged as a prominent attraction, alluring tourists with its historical edifices and scenic streets leading to the sea. Despite the inevitable passage of time, several historical buildings along 12 Eylül Street remarkably preserve their originality, prominently exhibiting distinct architectural features on their facades. This research entails a comprehensive literature review and analysis pertaining to the aforementioned district, neighborhood, and street, followed by a meticulous facade analysis of seven structures situated on 12 Eylül Street. Notably, the facades of these historical buildings exhibit influences from Late Ottoman Architecture, as well as the Neoclassical, Rococo, and the First National Architectural Movement (Neoclassical Turkish Style) periods, each contributing unique elements to the meticulous designs of these structures. In light of this research, preserving the historical value of Giritli District and 12 Eylül Street, it is of great importance to keep it alive and pass it on to future generations.

Literary Chains Frozen in Tile? Proposed Literary Connections between Salmān Sāvajī and Aḥmedī as Observed in the Persian Epigraphic Programme of the Green Zāviye in Bursa (821–827/1419–1424)

The layers of Arabic and Persian epigraphy in the Green Complex (821–827/1419–1424) in the Western Anatolian town of Bursa, built for Meḥmed I (r. 816–824/1413–1421), are indicative of the literary horizon at this time. I argue that the extensive epigraphic programme is a contemporary source frozen in ‘tile’ and time, connecting the buildings to the concurrent developments in Anatolian literature. For the first time, I discuss the appearance of Persian poetry by the Jalāyirid court poet Salmān Sāvajī (d. 777/1376) on early Ottoman architecture, which ties in with the contemporary works of Tāceddīn Aḥmedī (734–815/1334–1413), poet laureate of Meḥmed I (r. 816–824/1413–1421). The preserved texts in the Green Complex allow us to obtain a new perspective on the transregional connections between the post-Mongol Turkmen world and the Ottoman sphere of influence.

Sinan the Architect’s Process of Creating Spatial Typology

The article explores the process of central planning development and dome-bearing systems analysis in mosques belonging to Classical Ottoman Architecture, focusing on the typological plan variations found in Sinan the Architect’s octagonal-based central domes. It is aimed to determine the spatial typology of these octagonal based central domes, as they play a crucial role in creating a central space in mosques. The typology studies focused on the load-bearing systems in central dome designs of eighteen surviving mosques designed by Sinan the Architect. The study method involves scanning scientific publications, state archives, and photographing mosques. Mosques ground floor plans, including their dome projections and sectional drawings, have been examined. Gathering all the data from analysing the transfer of the dome load enabled a categorisation of eighteen mosques that can be classified into two primary groups and three sub-groups within each group.

Edirne New Palace excavations (2018-2021)

The palace serves as a legitimacy tool for states that operate under a monarchical system of administration and for the dynasty holding power. It is the residence and administrative location of the highest ruler of the state. Thus, the edifice has the ability to depict the period and civilization it embodies in the most elevated manner. The palace has been a crucial emblem of Ottoman society for 600 years, spanning the inception of the civilization. Although Bursa Bey Palace and Edirne Old Palace, erected in Ottoman capitals, have not withstood the passage of time, Edirne New Palace acted as a blueprint for Istanbul's Topkapı Palace, serving as an efficient residence until the final days of the Ottoman Empire. The palace now stands deserted as a result of the Ottoman-Russian war and subsequent destruction. This study focuses on excavations carried out in 2020 to uncover its heritage, which encompasses Ottoman architecture and art from the II. Murad period to the late 19th century in a diverse manner, and to reintroduce certain components into contemporary Turkish cultural life. The article presents the land applications and data gathered during the excavation period.

Assessment of Daylighting in a Historical Educational Building: Ankara University Faculty of Science Analytical Chemistry Laboratory

The conditions of Ottoman architecture persisted during the republican period at the turn of the 20th century. Later, radical changes in the structure of the state affected the field of architecture, and changes in the world were reflected in our country. The structures that are the subject of architectural debates are typically early republican period buildings, which were built between 1920s and 1950s. On the other hand, in past buildings, the interior design criteria that are important for the user in interior design have been the subject of interest in various disciplines. Lighting – daylighting and electric lighting – in different interiors is one of the design criteria that has intrigued many researchers. Laboratories, classrooms, studios, circulation areas, administrative spaces, offices, conference rooms, and wet spaces are all common features of educational buildings. Each of these spaces has unique lighting requirements. The aim of this study is to assess the daylighting performance in the interior and encourage similar studies in historical educational buildings rather than the architectural design of these buildings. Daylighting performance was assessed in the analytical chemistry laboratory at the Ankara University Faculty of Science, block A, which was built during the Second National Architectural Movement and bears the traces of Sedad Hakki Eldem, Emin Onat, and Paul Bonatz. A morning interval (10:00–11:00) where the courses are considered the most productive was chosen for the evaluation. The results were compared and interpreted with the values specified in the standards; the measurement is limited to the day and time interval.

Between East and West: Mimar Kemaleddin and 'Ahmed Ratib Paşa Mansion'

This study focuses on the Late Period Ottoman Architecture through the summer mansion designed for Ahmed Ratib Paşa by Mimar Kemaleddin, built between 1900-1908. Ahmed Ratib Paşa Mansion’s classical planary discipline is oversailed with numerous cantilevers, balconies, and eaves placed on different levels and the angle braces that support them. On the façade, the eave adornments and the angle braces differ from classical decorative details and allude to an Ottoman Baroque past where curvilinear features are dominant. Floral Art Nouveau decorations in unique woodwork are used in all the architectural elements like balconies, windows and doors. In addition, the basket arches above the windows point to the building's affinity with the Art Nouveau movement in a rather striking fashion.
 Art Nouveau “Tarz-ı Cedid” showed up in Istanbul architecture, where almost all modes of Historicism were already represented, at the turn of the century. Although mostly applied by foreign architects, Art Nouveau was also practised by local ones who had received formal training. In Istanbul, where Art Nouveau buildings were common, the portfolio included mostly large scale urban residences such as apartment buildings, mansions and villas, countryside residences and office buildings. These buildings were favoured mostly by Ottoman high level bureaucrats, by the section of the society affiliated with the court, Levantine bourgeoisie and members of foreign missions. Considering Ahmed Ratib Paşa’s Western style and modern education, and likewise that of Mimar Kemaleddin's, it is not surprising that the former would wish for this new style in his residence and the latter would implement it. However, it is worth noting that it was also in the period where he was building Ahmet Ratip Paşa Mansion that Mimar Kemaleddin began forming his notion of “National Architecture”.
 Is it possible to consider Mimar Kemaleddin, who was influenced by Ottoman Baroque Architecture and designed a residence adorned with Art Nouveau details, merely within the confines of the “National Architecture Movement”?

The acoustical characterization of clay pots in Ottoman architecture through experimental and numerical analysis.

In medieval age, clay pots are utilized as multi-functional building elements serving not only for structural and ventilative purposes but also for the improvement of the acoustic qualities of the space. Although the medieval usage of acoustic pots is vaguely connected with the acoustic vessels of Vitruvius, their employment is also interpreted as cavity resonators as in the case of Süleymaniye Mosque. The 16th century edifice designed by Sinan the Architect Laureate is a significant example among its European counterparts with 224 clay pots embedded into its central dome. The present work aims to discuss the contribution of clay pots in acoustics of historical edifices focusing on Süleymaniye Mosque. In this study, a clay pot sample employed in the mosque is reproduced and impedance tube measurements are held. The results are then compared with finite element model simulations carried out to examine the effective frequency range of the clay pots. Finally, the data acquired from numerical simulations and the experimental measurements are applied in ray tracing simulations. The final results reinforce the contribution of clay pots on the improvement of sound energy decay rate measured after the final restorations within the mosque with repaired pots.

Geometric Patterns Used in the Architecture of Kaboud Mosque in Tabriz, Iran

Doubts about the architectural style of the Kaboud Mosque in Tabriz are related to the geometry of the plan and its special volumetric composition, which has made this building different from other examples of mosque architecture in Iran. For this reason, some scholars, following the formal origins of this mosque, have traced its roots in the art of the Ottoman region and, as a result, have introduced the architecture of the Kaboud Mosque as an imitation of Ottoman architecture. In the present study, using a descriptive-analytical method, the form of the construction of the Kaboud Mosque of Tabriz and its comparison with the Ottoman mosques have been studied and recognized. Then, the geometry used in the Kaboud Mosque of Tabriz has been analyzed by measuring its degree of compatibility with the resulting rectangles of regular pentagons and hexagons. The results show that the construction of the Kaboud Mosque is similar in form to some Ottoman architectural works. However, structurally, it has been created entirely based on the Iranian engineering style. The architectural style of this building, although it opened a new chapter in the design of the mosque in Iranian architecture, could not arouse the desire of later architects to repeat its form.

The Concrete Rupture: An Examination of Yugoslav Islamic Heritage in the Aftermath of the 1963 Skopje Earthquake

The study of the Cold War built environment and its links with communist ideology have permeated the field of architectural history and theory since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. However, the treatment of Ottoman Islamic heritage under state socialist rule remains a little examined subject. The earthquake that demolished large swaths of the Yugoslav city of Skopje in 1963 caused heavy damage to Ottoman architecture. In the years that followed, the reconstruction of Skopje became a symbol of a singular, international collaboration between countries from both sides of the Cold War divide. The city that arose became the 1970s brutalist capital of the Balkans. This article examines the treatment of Ottoman urban heritage in Skopje and its sociocultural and political implications during the post-disaster (re)construction of a modernizing and modernist city. I argue that disregard for the historical breadth and the continuing religious, cultural, and social significance of the region’s Ottoman-era urban spaces and structures for Skopje’s Muslim community in the creation of the brutalist city was not exclusively based on anti-Muslim rhetoric. Rather, it was part of the driving quest for modernity sought by the Yugoslav communist leaders in the second half of the twentieth century.

Reflections of the Ottoman Period of Westernization in Religious Architecture: Facade Arrangement of the Balyan Mosques

The conceptualization of Western architecture became a prominent force in Ottoman architecture with the advent of the period of westernization that started at the beginning of the eighteenth century during the Tulip Era (1718-1730). The most important cultural dynamic that changed the course of Ottoman architecture was the imported architectural styles that originated in Europe. Welcoming the western influence became a state policy that persevered throughout the nineteenth century. In this century, the western-based architectural perspective of the Armenian-Ottoman Balyan Family came to the forefront. The Balyan Family of architects created an original architectural language by blending the elements of western and traditional architecture, justifiably imprinting their stamp on the Ottoman architecture of the nineteenth century. While predominantly producing civil and official buildings, the Balyan Family's mosques also stood out in this period with their new design features. This article seeks to present and analyze the arrangements and elements of the facades of eight mosques built by the Balyan Family in the 19th century, namely the Büyük Mecidiye Mosque, Küçük Mecidiye Mosque, Dolmabahçe Mosque, Nusretiye Mosque, Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque, Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque, Teşvikiye Mosque, and Sadabad Mosque.

Bewildered and Enchanted: Early Modern Imperial Ottoman Mosques and the Sense of Wonder

ABSTRACT: this paper proposes that early modern Ottoman intellectuals familiar with a medieval cosmographic theory of wonder formed a large emotional community whose members valued and practiced this emotion towards imperial Ottoman mosques. To achieve this objective, I draw upon a variety of sources from the early modern period, including chronicles, treatises on architecture, and travelogues, created by individuals who belonged to this emotional community. Sources such as these contain words, symbols, and gestures, that aided the whole group in recognizing this desirable emotion in the context of imperial architecture. Through their writing, these individuals sought to instill cosmographic wonder among their readers, while at the same time conveying the message that imperial mosques represent the creation of God. Such a narrative was employed by the Ottomans as long as cosmographies were in demand. From the beginning of the seventeenth century, when updated studies on geography gradually replaced cosmographies, there were those within this emotional community who underwent an epistemological change. From this point on, wonder at Ottoman architecture was generated by different stimuli which were not necessarily related to the cosmographic theory of wonder.

KOZMİK ARMONİ: OSMANLI MÜZİK VE MİMARLIK RİSALELERİNDE BİR ANTİKİTE/RÖNESANS KAVRAMI

This study discusses texts dealing with the common ontological and cosmological infrastructure of music and architecture, especially in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth-century Ottoman Empire, to present the prevailing perspective of this period. This research adopts an interdisciplinary hermeneutic approach to architectural and musical texts. Ottoman architecture's ontological and cosmological background is based on Sufi ontology and ancient philosophy. Pythagoreanism, on the other hand, had an impact on the systematic school of Ottoman music. When all this information is evaluated, we encounter the cosmic harmony, stages of creation, celestial layers above the earth, planets, and numbers associated with them that are considered sacred, music theory is formulated, and architectural examples are interpreted according to this hierarchy. When Ottoman culture is examined with an interdisciplinary hermeneutic approach, it is revealed that a perception of ontology and cosmology from ancient sources has been adopted.

A Turning Point in the History of Ottoman Architecture: Fossati Brothers

A Turning Point in the History of Ottoman Architecture: Fossati Brothers