Oryctolagus Research Articles

Morphometric characterization and genetic distance in bitches (oryctolagus cuniculus) in several regions in Indonesia

Rabbits are a group of animals that are very popular and enjoyed by the community. Rabbits, in general, have the high biological and economic potential to produce quality meat, skin, and hair, as well as pets (ornamental) and modern business farming. Rabbits are well known in Indonesia and developed mostly for farming. This literature study discusses morphometric characteristics and genetic distances among rabbits. The parameters used were head length (PK), head width (LK), ear length (PTL), ear width (LTL), chest circumference (LKD), chest width (LD), humerus bone length (PH), radius-ulna bone length (PRU), tibial bone length (PT), and body length (PB). The results of body variables measurement in FG rabbits had a higher mean for body size, including PK (12.64 cm), PTL (13.59 cm), LTL (6.47 cm), PH (9.52 cm), PRU (8, 95 cm), and PB (41.97 cm) compared to other families. Genetic distance shows that it has a close genetic distance (0.63106), while the farthest genetic distance is found between Rexb rabbits and ES rabbits, which is 6.96749. The genetic distances and tree phenogram construction are useful for estimating kinship between Rabbits clumps.

Comparative Epidemiology of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus Strains from Viral Sequence Data.

Since their introduction in 1859, European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) have had a devastating impact on agricultural production and biodiversity in Australia, with competition and land degradation by rabbits being one of the key threats to agricultural and biodiversity values in Australia. Biocontrol agents, with the most important being the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 1 (RHDV1), constitute the most important landscape-scale control strategies for rabbits in Australia. Monitoring field strain dynamics is complex and labour-intensive. Here, using phylodynamic models to analyse the available RHDV molecular data, we aimed to: investigate the epidemiology of various strains, use molecular data to date the emergence of new variants and evaluate whether different strains are outcompeting one another. We determined that the two main pathogenic lagoviruses variants in Australia (RHDV1 and RHDV2) have had similar dynamics since their release, although over different timeframes (substantially shorter for RHDV2). We also found a strong geographic difference in their activities and evidence of overall competition between the two viruses.

Investigation of male genital system anatomy in the New Zealand rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.).

Rabbits are frequently used in research because of their human-like biological structure. In the present study, 10 male rabbits were preferred. Arterial vascularization of the genital system organs were dissected. Morphometric and macroanatomical results of these organs were taken, and some organs were examined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this study, right testis length was measured at 67.24 ± 5.36 mm and left testis length was 62.25 ± 6.55 mm in New Zealand rabbits. Testicular weight was 10.21 ± 1.17 g on the right and 9.90 ± 1.15 g on the left. Right caput epididymidis 0.68 ± 0.08 g, left caput epididymidis 0.80 ± 0.13 g; right corpus epididymidis 0.14 ± 0.03 left corpus epididymidis 0.15 ± 0.03 g; right cauda epididymidis 1.87 ± 0.26 g left cauda epididymidis 1.90 ± 0.31 g. In the present study, right ductus deferens weight was 0.30 ± 0.29 g, and left ductus deferens weight was 0.25 ± 0.03 g; the ampulla ductus deferentis weight was 0.35 ± 0.16 g on the right side and 0.37 ± 0.16 g on the left side. The length of the vesicular gland glandula vesicularis was calculated as 18.54 ± 0.35 mm on the right and 17.55 ± 0.59 mm on the left. The width of the vesicular gland was measured as 16.54 ± 0.28 mm on the right and 16.70 ± 0.45 mm on the left. Vesicular gland weight was 0.91 ± 0.07 g on the right side and 0.96 ± 0.09 g on the left side. The prostate length was recorded as 11.68 ± 2.01 mm and width as 13.02 ± 1.38 mm. The length of the bulbourethral gland was 13.36 ± 2.00 mm on the right side and 12.39 ± 1.21 mm on the left. Its width was recorded as 6.73 ± 0.98 mm on the right and 5.80 ± 0.90 mm on the left. Respectively, it weighed 0.40 ± 0.20 g on the right and 0.44 ± 0.24 g on the left. The prostate consisted of three parts in rabbits: the proprostate, the corpus prostate and the paraprostate. The bulbourethral gland was a green lentil-sized gland found in pairs. It is thought that the obtained results will contribute to the scientific researches on male genital system in laboratory animals and other animal species, artificial insemination studies, reproductive system diseases and operations in rabbits.

Iberian wild leporidae as hosts of zoonotic enteroparasites in Mediterranean ecosystems of Southern Spain.

Wild lagomorphs including rabbits and hares can act as natural carriers or reservoirs of bacterial and parasitic zoonotic diseases. However, little is known on the epidemiology and potential public health significance of intestinal eukaryotes in wild leporids. We examined faecal samples from European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus, n=438) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis, n=111) collected in the Autonomous Region of Andalusia in southern Spain during 2012-2021. We searched for the presence of DNA from the main intestinal protist and microsporidial pathogens of veterinary and public health concerns using molecular methods (PCR followed by Sanger and next-generation sequencing). Giardia duodenalis was the most prevalent species found (27.8%, 153/550; 95% CI: 24.1-31.8), followed by Cryptosporidium spp. (1.3%, 7/550; 95% CI: 0.5-2.6), Blastocystis sp. (1.1%, 6/550; 95% CI: 0.4-2.4) and Encephalitozoon intestinalis (0.2%, 1/550; 95% CI: 0.0-10.1). All samples tested negative for Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Sequence analyses revealed the presence of sub-assemblage BIV (n=1) within G.duodenalis, and Cryptosporidium cuniculus (n=6) and Cryptosporidium andersoni (n=1) within Cryptosporidium. The presence of ruminant-adapted C.andersoni is indicative of a potential cross-species transmission event, although a spurious infection (mechanical carriage) cannot be ruled out. Samples assigned to C.cuniculus belonged to the gp60 subtype families Va (n=3) and Vb (n=2). The six Blastocystis-positive samples were identified as ST2 (n=3) and ST1 + ST2 (n=3). Our molecular results suggest that wild rabbits and hares were primarily infected by leporid-adapted species of eukaryotic pathogens. However, the occasional findings of zoonotic G.duodenalis sub-assemblage BIV, Blastocystis sp. ST1 and ST2, and Encephalitozoon intestinalis could be of public health relevance.

Data for the Domestic Rabbit’s Drinking Water Supply

A short review article was prepared on the domestic rabbit's drinking water consumption and the external and internal factors that significantly influence it. The rabbit's need for drinking water is influenced, among other things, by age, sex, body weight, lactation phase and milk production, the dry matter, fiber and protein content of the feed, the mineral content of the water, the temperature of the water, the possibility of access to water and/or feed and the ambient temperature. The domestic rabbit's water consumption habits are partly derived from the ancestral behavior of the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and partly influenced by the design of the drinkers. Continuous satisfaction of the rabbit's demand for drinking water in artificial housing conditions is a basic welfare requirement.

SARS-CoV-2 and animals, a long story that doesn't have to end now: What we need to learn from the emergence of the Omicron variant.

OIE, the world organization for animal health, recently released an update on the state of the art of knowledge regarding SARS-CoV-2 in animals. For farmed animals, ferrets and minks were found to be highly susceptible to the virus and develop symptomatic disease both in natural conditions and in experimental infections. Lagomorphs of the species Oryctolagus cuniculus are indicated as highly susceptible to the virus under experimental conditions, but show no symptoms of the disease and do not transmit the virus between conspecifics, unlike raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), which in addition to being highly susceptible to the virus under experimental conditions, can also transmit the virus between conspecifics. Among felines, the circulation of the virus has reached a level of cases such as sometimes suggests the experimental use of vaccines for human use or treatments with monoclonal antibodies. But even among wild animals, several species (White-tailed deer, Egyptian rousettes, and minks) have now been described as potential natural reservoirs of the virus. This proven circulation of SARS-CoV-2 among animals has not been accompanied by the development of an adequate surveillance system that allows following the evolution of the virus among its natural hosts. This will be all the more relevant as the surveillance system in humans inevitably drops and we move to surveillance by sentinels similar to the human flu virus. The lesson that we can draw from the emergence of Omicron and, more than likely, its animal origin must not be lost, and in this mini-review, we explain why.

Molecular detection of Ehrlichia spp. in ticks parasitizing wild lagomorphs from Spain: characterization of a novel Ehrlichia species

BackgroundSeveral species belonging to the genus Ehrlichia are considered pathogenic for animals and humans. Although wildlife are known to play an important role in the epidemiology of these bacteria, information on the role of wild lagomorphs in their sylvatic cycle is limited. Thus, the objective of the present study was to assess the occurrence of Ehrlichia spp. in ticks collected from wild lagomorphs in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems.MethodsA total of 1122 pooled ticks (254 pools) collected from 506 wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and 29 Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) were analysed using a nested PCR assay targeting the partial groEL gene. Ehrlichia spp.-positive samples were further subjected to a second PCR assay targeting 16S rRNA.ResultsThree (1.2%) tick pools comprising Rhipicephalus pusillus collected from nine wild rabbits were positive for Ehrlichia spp. All the Ehrlichia DNA sequences were identical, and use of sequence and phylogenetic analyses allowed us to identify a novel Ehrlichia species.ConclusionsWe provide evidence that a novel Ehrlichia species, named herein as ‘Candidatus Ehrlichia andalusi’, which may be of concern for animal and public health, is circulating in R. pusillus in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. Further studies are warranted to assess the epidemiology, pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of this Ehrlichia species.Graphical

Effects of imidacloprid-contaminated feed exposure on spermatogenic cells and Leydig cells in testes of adult male rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

This research was undertaken to assess the results of repeated exposure to the insecticide; imidacloprid (IMI)-contaminated feed on testicular tissue, spermatogenic cell population, Leydig cell number, and sperm morphology in adult male rabbits (n = 24). The treatment groups received IMI (Bildor® 100 mg/L water spray on green grass)-contaminated green grass without wash (n = 8, not-washed-feed rabbit group) and after wash (n = 8, washed-feed rabbit group) once daily for two weeks on an alternate day basis. The rest of the rabbits, as control, received a normal pesticide-free standard feed. During the exposure time, there was no evident toxic symptom found on regular monitoring of IMI-treated rabbits. Histopathologically, the thickness of tunica albuginea of testes reduced significantly with loosely arranged connective tissues in IMI-treated rabbits. Within the testes, the bizarre-shaped seminiferous tubules were seen with increased lumen diameter in IMI-treated rabbits. The spermatogenic cells were disorganized and detached from the basement membrane in seminiferous tubules of IMI-exposed testes of rabbits. The spermatogenic cell population decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in IMI-treated rabbits compared to control rabbits. Leydig cell number decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in IMI-treated rabbits. A high percentage of morphologically abnormal spermatozoa was seen in IMI-treated rabbits. The degree of the histopathological changes was more prominent in the testes of IMI-exposed not-washed-feed rabbits. The results showed that insecticide-IMI has toxicological effects on testicular tissues, mainly spermatogenic and Leydig cell population of adult rabbits which may cause infertility.A short running title: Effect of imidacloprid on testicular tissue of rabbits.

Francisella tularensis PCR detection in Cape hares (Lepus capensis) and wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Algeria

Tularemia is a zoonosis caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis. Leporids are primary sources of human infections in the northern hemisphere. Africa is classically considered free of tularemia, but recent data indicate that this dogma might be wrong. We assessed the presence of this disease in wild leporids in Algeria. Between 2014 and 2018, we collected 74 leporids carcasses from spontaneously dead or hunted animals. Francisella tularensis DNA was detected by specific real-time PCR tests in 7/36 (19.44%) Cape hares (Lepus capensis) and 5/38 (13.15%) wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Known tularemia arthropod vectors infested half of the PCR-positive animals. At necropsy, F. tularensis-infected animals presented with an enlarged spleen (n = 12), enlarged adrenal glands (12), liver discoloration (12), hemorrhages (11), and pneumonia (11). Immunohistological examination of liver tissue from one animal was compatible with the presence of F. tularensis. Our study demonstrates the existence of tularemia in lagomorphs in Algeria. It should encourage investigations to detect this disease among the human population of this country.

Molecular Detection of Microsporidia in Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. are microsporidia with zoonotic potential that have been identified in humans, as well as in a large group of wild and domestic animals. Several wildlife species have been studied as reservoirs of zoonotic microsporidia in mainland Spain, including the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Due to a lack of data on microsporidia infection in wildlife on the Canary Islands, the aim of this work was to analyze the prevalence and identify the species of microsporidia in rabbits in Tenerife. Between 2015 and 2017, a total of 50 fecal samples were collected from rabbits in eight municipalities of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. Seven of the fifty samples (14%) were amplified using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the partial sequence of the 16S rRNA gene, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, and the partial sequence of the 5.8S rRNA gene. Sanger sequencing reveals the presence of Encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype I in two samples (4%), and undescribed microsporidia species in five samples (10%). This study constitutes the first molecular detection and genotyping of E. cuniculi in rabbits in Spain.

Axonal quantification of the white matter association fasciculi in cerebral hemispheres of cow (Bos taurus), pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) and rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

Cerebral white matter consists mainly of axons surrounded by myelin sheaths, which are grouped to form association, commissural, and projection fasciculi. The aim of our work was to quantify and compare under the microscope the axons of the white matter association fasciculi in the cerebral hemispheres of cow (Bos taurus), pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) and rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) indirectly by identification of their myelin sheaths. The samples were taken from 30 cerebral hemispheres: 10 cow, 10 pig and 10 rabbit (15 right and 15 left). They were obtained following a protocol based on the Talairach-Tournoux coordinate system for human and primate brains. The slides were stained with Luxol Fast Blue, observed by optical microscopy, and photographed at 600×. Samples were also prepared for observation in scanning transmission electron microscopy with osmium tetroxide. The myelin sheaths/axons were counted with the ImageJ software. Statistically significant differences in the number of myelin sheaths per 410 μm² were found in the inferior and superior longitudinal fasciculi between the left and right hemispheres of cows, with predominance of the right hemisphere; and in the inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus of the rabbit with predominance of the left hemisphere. The use of animal models for experiments in the cerebral fasciculi, especially pig, could give us a greater understanding of the behaviour of demyelinating and neurodegenerative diseases in humans.

Grazing capacity change on a small Mediterranean-type South African offshore island following the control of invasive alien European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Invasive alien species (IAS) are one of the most important factors driving extinction rates worldwide. Among the IAS, the impacts of introduced mammals on native biodiversity are most severe, with the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) being the most problematic. Globally, European rabbits have been introduced to five continents and more than 800 islands or island groups where they are a threat to biodiversity and human livelihoods. The impacts of European rabbits on biodiversity and human livelihoods have been extensively studied across the globe. However, some regions of the world, such as the offshore islands along Africa’s southern coast, have been sparsely studied. In this study, we monitored change in grazing capacity on a South African offshore island, Robben Island, following an attempt to eradicate European rabbits between 2008 and 2009. Grazing capacity on the island increased following rabbit control, driven by the recovery of palatable plant species in response to release from herbivory. There was no change in grazing capacity at sites under Eucalyptus plantations because of the inhibitory effects of the alien trees on understory vegetation dynamics. We believe that grazing capacity changes on Robben Island are indicative of potential vegetation changes on other southern African offshore islands.

Examination of the pharmacokinetics and differential inhibition of cyclooxygenase isoenzymes in New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) by the Non-Steroidal anti-inflammatory Robenacoxib.

Effective rabbit analgesia is challenging, and there are few studies available on the newer COX-2 selective NSAIDs, such as robenacoxib. This study aimed to establish the pharmacokinetics of oral and subcutaneous robenacoxib, describe its inhibitory actions on COX enzymes, and develop dosing, using six healthy New Zealand white rabbits. Pharmacokinetics were determined from plasma concentrations after oral administration of robenacoxib (0.83-0.96 mg/kg) and also after subcutaneous administration (2mg/kg). The inhibitory actions of robenacoxib were evaluated by measuring plasma concentrations of thromboxane B2 (TBX2 ) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) as surrogate markers of cyclooxygenase enzyme isoform inhibition. The mean maximum concentration for oral and subcutaneous administration was 0.23 μg/ml and 5.82 μg/ml, respectively. Oral robenacoxib administration did not demonstrate a significant difference between any time point for PGE2 or TBX2 , though subcutaneous administration did for both. There was no significant difference in PGE2 or TBX2 concentrations at any time point when comparing subcutaneous versus oral routes. Although the results support that plasma robenacoxib exceeds the therapeutic levels compared to dogs and cats, there was little significance in the difference in the changes associated with COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition. Further studies are warranted to determine appropriate dosing, safety, and efficacy in rabbits.

A Review of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Domestic Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)-Biology, Clinical Signs, Diagnostic Techniques, Treatment, and Prevention.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a eukaryote, unicellular, spore-forming, obligate intracellular microorganism of the phylum Microsporidia, with domestic rabbits as its main host. Another important species in which this pathogen has been identified are humans, the infection being therefore called a "zoonosis". The transmission takes place via the horizontal route or the vertical route, and cell-mediated immunity plays the biggest role in the infected hosts' protection. Encephalitozoonosis can manifest itself as an acute infection, with neurological signs, renal signs, and ocular lesions, or as a chronic or subclinical infection, which is usually the case for asymptomatic carriers. The diagnostic techniques usually carried out are histological examination, serological tests, and molecular genetic techniques. The treatment of encephalitozoonosis is usually symptomatic, with unrewarding results, and prevention methods include periodical serological screening, prophylactic administration of fenbendazole, and maintenance of a clean environment. The purpose of this article is to review the current data regarding the pathogenesis, host immunity, clinical signs, diagnostic methods, treatment, and prevention methods of encephalitozoonosis in the domestic rabbit, as well as to analyze the prevalence of this disease in different countries of the world.

Tympanic bullae ultrasonography is feasible in nonsedated healthy rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

To assess the feasibility of ultrasonography of the tympanic bullae (TB) in live, nonsedated rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). 40 healthy rabbits undergoing TB ultrasonography without sedation between September 2021 and May 2022. For each rabbit, fur was clipped over an area (3 X 3 cm) at the level of the angular process of each mandible, then 3 ultrasonographic planes of each TB were imaged via ventral approach, with measurement of the time taken to complete the examination. Three items were assessed for each plane: TB depth, wall integrity, and contents (present or absent). Results were compared for rabbits grouped as standard-sized breed type versus dwarf-sized breed type. The examination could be carried out successfully in 36 of 40 (90%) of rabbits with clipping. The restraint and examination were relatively well tolerated by the animals, except for the transverse sections. Obtaining oblique and longitudinal sections, carried out on 33 of 40 (83%) rabbits in our study, allowed for evaluation of the TB. The examination was feasible with all rabbit sizes. The depth of the TB was found to be linked to the size of the rabbit and especially to the size of its jaw. Visualization of the distal bulla wall was observed in 2 of the 40 (5%) subjects, consistent with abnormal fluid contents or bulla osteitis. Ultrasonography of the TB was easy to learn and rapid to perform, with a mean examination time of < 10 minutes (mean of 8.71 minutes) without any sedation.

Identification and Validation of FGF10, SP-B and FOXM1 Genes for Regulating Histogenesis of the Fetal New Zealand White Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Lungs

Identification and Validation of FGF10, SP-B and FOXM1 Genes for Regulating Histogenesis of the Fetal New Zealand White Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Lungs

Using genetic analysis to determine the distribution, prevalence and diversity of Eimeria species in pest rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Australia.

To genetically assess the Australian distribution and frequency of Eimeria species in wild rabbits, with a primary focus on Eimeria intestinalis and Eimeria flavescens as possible additional agents of rabbit biocontrol, the distal colon and faecal samples from wild rabbits sourced from 26 Australian locations with mean annual rainfalls of between 252mm and 925mm were analysed using amplicon sequencing of the ITS1 region. Contrary to previous microscopy studies which had only detected E. flavescens on mainland Australia at Wellstead in south-west Western Australia, we detected this species at all 23 effectively sampled sites. The more pathogenic E. intestinalis was only found at 52.2% of sites. Three unique Eimeria genotypes were detected that did not align to the 11 published sequences using a pairwise-match threshold of 90%, and may represent unsequenced known species or novel species. One genotype we termed E. Au19SH and was detected at 20 sites, E. Au19CO was detected at eight sites, and E. Au19CN was detected in one rabbit at Crows Nest (Qld). Site diversity ranged from only five Eimeria species at Boboyan (ACT) to 13 unique sequences at Cargo (NSW). Eimeria diversity in individual rabbits ranged from 11 unique sequences in a rabbit at Wellstead (WA) and a rabbit at Cargo (NSW), to one in 17 rabbits and zero in six rabbits. The three rabbit age classes averaged 4.3 Eimeria species per rabbit. No relationship was found between the number of Eimeria species detected and mean annual rainfall. As Eimeria species were found to be fairly ubiquitous at most sites they appear to be an unlikely additional candidate to assist the control of pest rabbits in Australia.

Introduction, rescue, and subsequent history of Auckland Islands livestock

Farm livestock and other animals were introduced onto the Auckland Islands during the 19th century. Most were eradicated by the late 20th century, but before then, some goats (Capra aegagrus hircus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), cattle (Bos taurus) and pigs (Sus scrofa) that were considered to have unique genetic characteristics were taken to mainland New Zealand with a view to studying and maintaining their particular breeds.

Rabbit Farming Management Practices: A Case Of An EmergingRabbit Farmer/Producer

Promoting rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) farming responses to the challenges in food security and agricultural sustainability. The purpose of this study is to describe the management practices of emerging rabbit farmers/producers in rural areas in relation to their housing practices, feeding, breeding, and healthand disease management. Also, it identifies the benefit and challenges of rabbitfarming. Furthermore, a framework was developed in capacitating the rabbitfarmers/producers to make rabbit farming ventures a sustainable livelihood in rural areas. Descriptive research was utilized; 33 rabbit farmers are the respondents of this study; a snowball sampling technique was used to identify the respondent. In- depth semi-structured interviews and observation were used in gathering the data. Findings revealed that farmers invest in galvanized wire cages but some use local materials like bamboo and used wood however they need to improve their housing design even its backyard rabbit raising. The majority uses a combination of rabbit pellets &amp; forages that are locally available for feeding the rabbit. Also, most of them acquire their rabbit breed from local rabbit breeders where the challenge to the farmers is the quality and the inbreeding. Skin disease and diarrhea are common diseases in rabbits andfarmers have knowledge of identifying the symptoms and also curing them. Themajor benefit of rabbit production it gives an additional source of income forrabbit farmers/producers while the major challenges are inadequate/limited knowledge of rabbit production and an unreliable market for rabbit breeds and meat.

Road-kills in New Zealand: long-term effects track population changes and reveal colour blindness

Road-kills were recorded at random throughout New Zealand, on 96359 km of roads, avoiding towns and busy motorways, from 1963-2018. Traffic increase from 1.04 m to 4.33 million vehicles during the study had little effect on mortality, even at the greater traffic density in the North Island. Seasonal changes measured on 8435 km (151 trips) between Lower Hutt and Otaki from 1985-2015 showed lowest mortality in winter. Major differences in species identification between two independent observers on the same route, from 2009-2014, resulted from one being red/green colourblind. Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) numbers dipped briefly in the 1970s, peaked in the 1990s, and have declined since then where there has been widespread poisoning to protect trees, birds, and limit bovine TB. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) increased steadily after control was lifted in the 1980s and now dominate the road-kills; the effect of RHD, introduced in 1997, does not register, probably because it causes short-term local oscillations. Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) numbers show no clear trend and, unlike the other species, North and South Island patterns differ; the lower numbers in the South may reflect the cooler climate. Brown hares (Lepus europaeus) remain relatively stable, with a doubling in numbers since the 1980s in parallel with rabbits. The predators, cats (Felis catus) and mustelids (Mustela furo, M.erminea, M. nivalis), followed their prey increase until the 1990s when extensive predator control began; they then declined, although rabbit and rat (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus) numbers continued to rise. In the 1950-60s, far more live mammals were being seen on and from roads, and adaptations to traffic have evolved. These historical records may be useful to assess future changes in road-kill following the adoption of silent electric cars, driverless vehicles, and public transport.