Orthodox Monasteries Research Articles

Russian-Greek Political and Ecclesiastical Relations in 20-30s of the 19th Century

The article is devoted to the Russian-Greek ecclesiastical and political relations before and during the Eastern Crisis of the 1820s. After the start of the Greek uprising in 1821, Russia took an ambivalent position: as a patron of all orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, it sought to support the Greeks, but Russia also had to recognize the Greek revolution as an illegitimate rebellion. As a member of the Holy Alliance of European Powers Russia had no other choice but to adhere to the principles of legitimism. Russia had both political and economic interests in the region. After the Greek uprising, main powers in the Western Europe had no doubt that Russia would support the rebels. Nevertheless, Russia regarded the Greek rebellion as another European revolution. After a successful war of independence, Russia established its diplomatic mission in the Greek capital. The first ambassador was P.I. Rickman, who arrived with aim to provide political relations with this new Balkan state. If political support of the rebellion could find no understanding in the conservative European circles, the aid of the Orthodox Balkan Church was implied by the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca 1774. Special attention in this support, provided by the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church to the Greek monasteries, was paid to the Athos monasteries. This support was designed by a special document. It was adopted in 1735 under the Empress Anna Ivanovna and was subject to execution in subsequent years. The Archive of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has kept lists of all Orthodox monasteries on the territory of the Ottoman Empire that enjoyed material support from the Russian church; a significant part of this list are the Orthodox churches of Greece.

Between Three Worlds. The “Veneto-Saracenic” Candleholder of Docheiariou Monastery

The collection of the Docheiariou monastery, held on Mount Athos, contains a Veneto-Saracenic inlaid candleholder decorated with a European coat of arms. While the object itself is a modest, unremarkable example of Mamluk-Latin cultural interaction, its unexpected location in the sacristy of a Greek Orthodox monastery makes for a complex case study. This article, besides presenting this previously unpublished object for the first time, presents a discussion of the dynamic behind the candleholder’s reception and the network through which it could have reached Mount Athos. It considers several important questions and serves as a starting point for a renewed analysis of interconnectivity in the eastern Mediterranean during the late Middle Ages. Finally, the article also explores neglected channels of direct and indirect interrelation between Byzantine and Mamluk aesthetics.

Between Piety and Productivity: Monastic Fisheries of the White and Barents Sea in the 16th–18th Centuries

This paper outlines the complexity of interactions between Russian Orthodox monasteries and fish resources of the Russian North in the White and Barents Sea basins. The authors consider the complete cycle of monastic fishing activities as a complex of routine practices of an organizational, managerial, and commercial character. They demonstrate that the monks developed the organizational structure and management system that crucially contributed to the transformation of traditional fishing practices into the market-oriented exploitation of the natural resources of the White and Barents seas.

СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ СЕРБСКИХ И РУССКИХ МОНАСТЫРЕЙ

A comparative analysis of the evolution of Orthodox monasteries is given on the example of Serbia and Russia. This topic is relevant in the issue of the revival of the Orthodox culture. The formation of the architecture of monastery complexes in modern conditions allows to determine the principles of the functional and architectural-spatial organization of Orthodox monasteries with social and educational facilities. Currently, the functions of monasteries are expanding, their educational, social, pilgrimage and other activities are becoming increasingly popular. The monastery ensemble is an open and constantly evolving system, and the methodology for the study of monastery complexes is based on a systematic approach to studying the architecture of Orthodox churches and monasteries. To date, comprehensive studies of the Orthodox monastery architecture of Serbia and the entire Balkan region as a whole have not been conducted. However, the experience of monastic construction in Russia and the Balkans allows to explore many features of the architecture of Orthodox monasteries and develop recommendations for the restoration of temple architecture and the new construction of temple complexes and monasteries, taking into account their socio-educational and cultural activities. In the revival of the monasteries of Serbia, the experience of Russia can now be widely used. At the same time, the main task of the architect is to preserve the features of the Serbian temple architecture and its identity.

Votive Exopraxis

Twice a year, the Greek Orthodox Monastery of St. George on the island of Büyükada, off the coast of Istanbul, attracts tens of thousands of Muslim pilgrims who come to make heterogenous and inventive votive offerings. Since these visitors are not Christians, their behavior is a form of exopraxis, which is the subject of the issue of Common Knowledge in which this contribution appears. Due to its scope and dynamism, this shared pilgrimage is perhaps the most important in the contemporary religious landscape of the Middle East, but it is part of a broader ecology that includes many mausoleums of Muslim saints and other Muslim holy places visited by Christians. The rationale and logic of such exopraxes is wild hope (in the Lévi-Straussian sense of wild). Pilgrims from one religious community travel to the sacred place of another not so much for communication or contact with its patron saint—the Muslim pilgrims to Büyükada pray for help to Allah, not to St. George or Jesus—as they travel to be in a place of hope at a time of personal need. This article analyzes how the proliferation of these votive exopraxes indicates both the tenuousness of the distinction between monotheist religions and their need of each other.

Beyond the territory principle: Non-territorial approach to the Kosovo question(s)

This article presents an attempt to approach the dispute over Kosovo between Serbs and Albanians from a non-territorial perspective, with particular focus on the preservation of the Serbian cultural and religious heritage. First, we argue that the Kosovo issue is at present commonly understood as an either-or territorial dispute over sovereignty and recognition between Serbian and Kosovo Albanian politicians. However, we claim that a lasting resolution to the Kosovo issue actually needs to account for at least three separate aspects: 1) status of Northern Kosovo which is ethnically Serbian and still maintains various ties with the Serbian state, 2) status of Serbian cultural and religious heritage, chiefly UNESCO world heritage Serbian medieval monasteries and churches and 3) the fact that the Serbian population in central Kosovo, i.e. south of the river Ibar, where most of the mentioned monasteries and churches are located, are located in small municipalities or enclaves of Serbs surrounded by vast Albanian populations. We examine the applicability of the non- territorial approach (NTA) to the Kosovo issue by analyzing the normative framework directly regulating the Serbian cultural and religious heritage in Kosovo, its preservation and protection, particularly of Serbian Orthodox monasteries, churches and other historical and cultural sites, while comparing these regulations to the existing normative NTAs in Croatia and Montenegro. Arguably, since most Serbian monasteries and churches are not included in any sovereignty negotiations, we point to the potential to combine territorial and non-territorial approaches, regardless of the continued obstacles in implementation arising from continued contestation of Kosovo?s sovereign status.

Историко-правовые основы и эволюция экономических отношений в Русской Православной Церкви в ХІІ-ХІХ веках: на примере украинских земель

The article discusses the evolution of economic and legal relations in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church in the 12th-19th centuries using the example of business entities in the territory of modern Ukraine. Being centres of crafts and trade, Orthodox monasteries contributed to the improvement of the production of various products, the formation of entire branches of the church manufactory industry. Being large business entities, monasteries, courtyards and cathedrals played a significant role in the economic activity of the Russian Church, as a result of which its power was regulated and limited by the power of Russian tsars and emperors, and after the Bolshevik coup of 1917 it was actually outlawed.

The reflection of spiritual crisis of the late XIX century among creative intelligentsia (on the example of relationship between the monks of male Orthodox monastery “Voznesenskaya Davidova Pustyn” and Chekhov family in 1892-1899)

The subject of this research is the character of relationship between Chekhov family and the Orthodox male monastery “Voznesenskaya Davidova Pustyn”. The object of this research is the religious life of Chekhov family. The goal consists in analysis of the religious and secular contacts between the Chekhov family and the abode, clarification of the question of religiosity of the prominent Russian writer Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, as well as answering the question regarding the impact of spiritual crisis of the late XIX upon him. The article explores the life of Chekhov family in their estate in Melikhovo from 1892 to 1899. Chekhov’s parents, especially his father, was a deeply religious person. The article also discusses the relationship between the writer and monks of the monastery, his visits of worship services in the abode. Russian Chekhoviana is quite extensive; the period from 1990 to 2010’s marks the emergence of works dedicated to religious views of the writer. The article is prepared on the basis of archival and unpublished materials (particularly Chekhov’s correspondence and the diary of his father Pavel Egorovich). The modern publications usually underline the presence of staunch atheistic creeds. Sometimes his life in Melikhovo is described without mentioning contacts with the monastery. This article is first to determine the problem of relationship of Chekhov family and one of the male monasteries of Moscow Region.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE SPIRITUALITY TO THE EDUCATION AND ENLIGHTENMENT OF CHILDREN

The article examines the role of the spirituality in the education and enlightenment of children. The emphasis is placed on the contribution of the spirituality to the activities and development of the educational system of Ukraine, the influence, role and interaction of the church with education.The history of the Christian Church’s upbringing, education, and outreach is inseparable from the history of its monasteries and churches, which were the center of faith, morality, and spirituality, the property of which is a significant scientific and cultural potential that is worthy of study and attention. The activities of the parish schools of Orthodox monasteries and churches of Ukraine, as the most widespread spiritual-religious and educational centers, have made a significant contribution to the education, upbringing and education of children and the people as a whole. The functioning of these institutions is inseparable from the life and activities of the clergy.Teachers and community activists, while analyzing the activities of parochial schools, recognized that the clergy were more competent and more interested in the success of education. The authority of the priest in the village was very high, the peasants believed in him, so they believed in the school in which the priest worked, or the school that worked under his leadership. Church-parish school took into account the opportunities of peasant children, was closer to the villagers, as it relied on the deep religiosity of the common peopleIt should be noted that the clergy were both the bearer and preacher of patriotism, so from different provinces of Ukraine there were reports of the desire of the clergy and believers to introduce Ukrainian language teaching in parish schools and spiritual seminaries, to raise issues before the spiritual leadership in order to have a full spiritual education. schools taught Ukrainian history, culture, literature.The clergy’s contribution to the education and enlightenment of children is difficult to overestimate. In some periods of Ukrainian history, nearly 80% of the population has been educated by the Church. Given the Orthodox Church’s extensive experience in the spiritual and moral upbringing of the population, as well as its role in the development of public education, a proper assessment of the Orthodox Church’s educational potential will help to address existing issues regarding its possible participation in the modern school, as well as identify other areas of Church cooperation and state institutions.

Common history and religion of Rus and Moskovia in the appeals of the Kyiv Hierarchs to the Moscow tsars and the Moscow patriarchs (1620s – 1680s)

The contacts between the Orthodox population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the population of the Moscow Kingdom originated at the end of the sixteenth – early seventeenth century. In particular, the Orthodox nobles and representatives of the Kyivan Mertopolitanate appealed to the Moscow rulers and Moscow patriarchs with requests to assist in the fight against Roman Catholics and Uniates. The first documented mention of the such embassies of the representatives of the Kyivan Mertopolitanate dates back to 1583 when the hieromonk and the elders of the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery arrived to Moscow. These contacts intensified after the non-recognition of the restored Orthodox hierarchy in 1620 by the Polish king Sigismund III. From now on, representatives of the Kyivan Mertopolitanate sought financial assistance from Moscow. They sent embassies and petitions with requests for alms to Moscow rulers and Moscow patriarchs. Instead, the Kyivan plaintiffs, as all the Ukrainian population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were heretics for the representatives of the Moscow royal court. These attitudes encouraged the representatives of the Kyivan Mertopolitanate to resort to different strategies of conviction in their letters and petitions. These rhetorical means had to convince Moscow rulers and Moscow patriarchs of the need to assist the Orthodox churches and monasteries of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. We can mention a particular strategy of conviction among such rhetorical means and formula-cliches – appeals to the joint history and religion of the Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Moscow Kingdom. We attempt to characterize this rhetorical instrument and analyze, in which situations and how successfully the representatives of the Kyivan Mertopolitanate used this strategy of conviction. Article received 18.02.2019

Food worthy of kings and saints: fish consumption in the medieval monastery Studenica (Serbia)

The paper focuses on fish consumption and long-distance fish trade in the medieval monastery Studenica in Serbia, from the perspective of archaeozoology and historical evidence. Medieval written sources on the subject suggest that fish was available primarily to particular social classes – the royalty, nobles and monasteries. Preserved muniments indicate that during the 13th-15th centuries the majority of distinguished monasteries had their own fishing ponds, fishing grounds and their own fishermen. Fish consumption occupied an important role in monastic contexts, both in Christian religious practices (e.g. Lent) and in celebrations commemorating the Virgin Mary and the monastery founder, during which high-quality fish was obtained from greater distances. The ichthyoarchaeological remains discussed in this paper originate from waste deposition areas within and outside of the ramparts of the Studenica Monastery, accumulated during the 14th and the first half of the 15th century. Apart from the remains of the species available more or less locally (Wels catfish [Silurus glanis Linnaeus, 1758], carp [Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758], pike [Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758]), the faunal assemblage contained the remains of migratory sturgeons (beluga [Huso huso Linnaeus, 1758], Russian sturgeon [Acipenser gueldenstaedtii Brandt & Ratzeburg, 1833], stellate sturgeon [Acipenser stellatus Pallas, 1771]) most likely transported from the Danube area, about 200 km away as the crow flies. Skeletal element distribution, butchering traces and size estimations (of beluga in particular) indicate that large specimens (c. 2-3.6 m in total length) were brought whole to the monastery, possibly dried or salted. Their occurrence is an additional indicator of long-distance fish trade recorded in muniments, and it offers new insights into economic, social and religious practices in medieval Eastern Orthodox monasteries.

Сутність і специфіка підготовки жінки до духовно-морального виховання дитини в монастирях України ХІХ століття (на основі праць святителя Феофана Вишенського)

In the XIX-th century women education was an important part of discussions not only about the woman life and destiny, but also about woman intellect. In Orthodox monasteries, women have traditionally been taught to follow the rules of spiritual perfection by climbing the « spiritual ladder » . The example of the lives of such women was an example for ordinary people for more than a century, since the idea of spiritual and moral perfection deeply penetrated into the life of the peasantry and took root in it.

Beyond Gender: Reflections on a Contemporary Case of Double Monastery in Orthodox Monasticism—St. John the Baptist Monastery of Essex in England

This paper focuses on the contemporary controversy in the Orthodox Church regarding the non-existence of the monasteries, where monks and nuns cohabit (so-called “double-monasteries”), which were prohibited by the Byzantine legislation and the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicea 787). The article attempts to demonstrate that, in spite of the centuries-old prohibition, the Orthodox Monastery of St. John the Baptist is an exceptional contemporary case of such cohabitation: monks and nuns live under the roof of the same monastery, sharing common places and certain activities. Furthermore, the paper envisions a possible accommodation in the monastic vision and practice regarding gender cohabitation in Orthodox monasticism. The research employs the historical-critical method, which is based on literary, archeological, and documentary sources, as well as interviews.

Synergetic effects between fasting, well-being and anti-consumption within the walls of Orthodox monasteries and outside them

Purpose The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to explore the possible synergetic effects between food-restricted behaviour (fasting in Orthodox Christianity) and physical and mental health; and second, to ponder on the nature of fasting and to reveal the potentials monastery cuisine has, reaching outside the world of religion and entering the world of consumption. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative research approach has been applied in order to investigate the synergetic effects between fasting, well-being and anti-consumption. The analysis is based on in-depth interviews carried out in Orthodox monasteries, in particular, in three monasteries in the territory of Mount Athos and in three monasteries in Northern Greece. Additionally, ten Bulgarians who visited monasteries situated at Mount Athos have been interviewed. In a cultural materialistic perspective, this paper seeks to discuss and reveal food and eating habits patterns. It combines the social anthropology of food with the anthropology of Eastern Orthodox religion. Findings The discussed interrelations between fasting, well-being and anti-consumption confirm the synergetic effects, occurring at different points between them. Fasting practices definitely contribute to consumers’ health and well-being. The food-restricted behaviour and the monastery diet are presented as a means of purification not only of the soul but also of the body. Fasting is an intriguing issue that offers many perspectives for people not only within but also without the monastery walls. Food-restricted behaviour as practiced in Orthodox Christianity shall be considered as beneficial for people’s health and as such it can reveal a lot of additional spiritual values for non-believers. Social implications Future applications of fasting practices as a non-consumptive behaviour and in view of social movements for healthy nutrition. A possibility for fasting menus as an alternative to fast food menus can be exploited. Originality/value The study provides some useful insights into the contemporary practice of Eastern Orthodox fasting and confirms that fasting is a successful means of achieving mental and physical well-being. New perspectives for monastery cuisine as a resource and brand strategy for restaurant business and tourism can be mentioned as well.

Teachings of cyril and Methodius as the Epicenter of Bulgaria’s national christian foundations

Purpose of the Article: reviewing theological work of Cyril and Methodius and defining foundations of the leadership of the Bulgarian nation in the Slavic areal in mastering Eastern Orthodoxy. The methodological basis of this work is provided by intonation concept of music represented by I. Liashevsky[7], BorisAsafyev’s follower in Ukraine. And also, by theoretical findings of the Bulgarian scholars P.Angelov, Georgi Bakalov and R.Grudev[1; 4], who stressed upon the inalienability of the nation from the religious in art. Scientific novelty: originality of the angle at which theological teachings were studied in generalized information regarding the history of Bulgarian art. Conclusions. The «Solun Brothers» embraced the ideas of early Christianity which did not know schisms and which allowed for a broad tolerance of various Christian denominations. Two lines in Saint Cyril’s theological teaching – intellectualism of missionary work and veneration of martyrdom and feat in the name of Faith – became especially prospective for the Bulgarian statehood and Eastern Orthodoxy. Especially impressive in the history of Bulgaria was the most vividly expressed patriotic combative spirit of Orthodox monasteries, which became outposts of the nation’s resistance to the Ottoman onslaught. This patriotic idea of monastic Service was a doctrine of Bulgarian Orthodoxy’s statehood foundations.

The Network Of the Byzantium after Byzantium Fresco Style in the UNESCO Monasteries of Moldova: The Sistine Chapel of the East

This research shows how network analysis of the Byzantine fresco themes on the murals of the Orthodox monasteries of Romania supports the cultural fame of their art. The frescos are a mix of folk and religious style and famous for the striking color of the pigments and the wealth of scenes depicted on the exterior murals. Using network science, I connect the monasteries based on how the fresco themes were transmitted from one monastery to another by the anonymous folk painters at the time and analyze this network. The analysis inputs the network of the UNESCO monasteries in the Northern Moldova region based on these shared fresco scenes and the centrality results show that one monastery in particular, named Voronet Monastery, also known in folklore as the “Sistine Chapel” of the East, is an actual central node of this “Byzantium after Byzantium” frescoes network. In this way, I demonstrate that a network depiction of the artistic influences in frescos supports the informal, folk names and the historical and cultural importance of Byzantium after Byzantium in the region.

Digitizing and Schematizing the Archival Material from the Late Ottoman Period Found in the Monastery of al-Za?far?n in Southeast Turkey

In the context of combining digital humanities with scholarship in history and religion, my paper discusses a plan to create a relational database of primary sources that were found in Syriac Orthodox monastery in southeast Turkey. The primary sources are in the form of archives of correspondence to and from six Syriac Orthodox patriarchs during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This massive archive comprises around 20,000 documents, which are still unpublished, and their content is mostly unknown to the scholarly world. In this proposed database of the Syriac patriarchal archives, the data extracted from the sources will be stored according to a relational aspect. The big picture of this project is to create a tool not only to understand many aspects of the life of the Syriac community in Middle East and in direct relationship with other communities who lived beside them or interacted with them, but also to develop a tool for other scholars in different fields and geographical areas to interact with this relational database according to their own interests.

Secularization reform in the Russian Empire in the 18th century and closing of Sloboda-Ukrainian monasteries of the Belgorod Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church

The article is devoted to the historically determined process of closing of Sloboda-Ukrainian monasteries of the Belgorod diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church during the so-called secularization reform of the 18th century in the Russian Empire. The general historical context of church secularization in Russia in the 18th century is analyzed. It is shown that Russian secularization was a logical consequence of establishment of state control over church, which was done by Peter I. Church became an integral part of the state apparatus of Russia. Since then, state intervention in church affairs has became a legal norm. In fact, the power over the Russian Orthodox Church was concentrated in the emperor’s hands. Given the strengthening of the absolutist imperial power under Catherine II, any struggle of church against the state church became hopeless. Thus, the Russian secularization reform of the 18th century actually turned out to be persecution of the church. It is noted that with the loss of independence by the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and its transfer by the Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV to the Moscow Patriarchs, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church became trapped between the hammer and the anvil of state-church opposition in Russia. The author sought to show that the events of the second half of the 80s of the 18th century during the closure of the Sloboda-Ukrainian monasteries were closely related to the general situation of the enslaved Ukrainian lands within the Russian Empire. The destruction of the Orthodox monastic environment of the Sloboda Ukraine (Slobozhanshchyna) concerned not only the church life. It directly affected the basics of the Ukrainian colonization of the “Wild Field” lands. According to the author, the Ukrainians made not only a military and economic contribution to the development of the future of Sloboda Ukraine during the colonization of the “Wild Field” lands, but also a spiritual and religious one. The author states that it completed the institutionalization of the concept of “Ukrainian Slobozhanshchyna”. The article states that in 1786–1788 the secularization measures were extended to the Ukrainian lands of the Russian Empire. The peculiarity of the religious life of Slobozhanshchyna at that time was that it was administratively subject to management by the Belgorod bishops. Despite this subordination to the ROC, certain Ukrainian peculiarities in the organization of life and ritual were preserved in the Sloboda-Ukrainian lands. The secular and ecclesiastical authority of the empire sought to eliminate this difference. The policy of secularization of the suburban monasteries with their massive closures was intended to establish complete uniformity in the Orthodox-religious sphere throughout the empire. In 1787 the Russian authorities began to close the Sloboda-Ukrainian monasteries of the Belgorod diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. The closure of the Sloboda-Ukrainian monasteries was accompanied by a sharp reduction in the number of Orthodox monasteries on the territory of the Ukrainian Slobozhanshchyna with a simultaneous sharp decrease in the number of monks. As a result of the secularization reform of the Russian model, the monastic life of Slobozhanshchyna was almost destroyed. The leading Orthodox monasteries of the region did not escape the closure either. Due to confisc ated monastic property, the Russian treasury was replenished with land, crafts and considerable finances. As in the Russian lands, in Slobozhanshchyna enhanced state control over monastic life was provided, more strict church orders were established and the remnants of Ukrainian Orthodox traditions were destroyed.Keywords: Sloboda Ukraine, monasteries, secularization, orthodoxy, church, state, power

Государственно-церковное взаимодействие в условиях фронтира на Юге России в XVI–XVII веках

We consider the process of Russia state territory expansion in the southern direction, which took place in the 16th – 17th centuries. We analyze the network formation process of orthodox churches and monasteries in the frontier zone – on the southern outskirts of Russia. We made an attempt to determine the role of the state in this process. It is concluded that the state provided the construction of the necessary number of churches and monasteries, as well as allocated funds to ensure their activities in the future.

Финансово-экономическая и хозяйственная деятельность православных мужских монастырей Тамбовской епархии в XVIII–XIX веках

The relevance of our study is due to the recent trends of comprehensive consideration of issues related to the financial, economic and economic activities of Orthodox monasteries. In the conditions of the revival of monastic life in modern Russia these aspects of monastic work are of particular interest to researchers and allow us to draw some historical parallels, as well as to comprehend many related issues in this direction. The study was tasked with presenting a genera-lized summary analysis of the economic status of Orthodox male monasteries of the eparchy dur-ing the synodal period, as well as reviewing the main articles of income and expenditure of mone-tary amounts. The facts collected and systematized in this study are intended to reveal the specifics and peculiarities of ownership of the male monasteries with their lands. Land tenure and various economic objects were a powerful economic help in the conditions of the established division of monasteries into regular and non-standard types after the 1764 reform. As a result, from the second half of the 18th century, most of the cloisters were forced to seek new non-state sources of income. In the process of the gradual accumulation of the land fund over the next century, the role of economic possessions, which, as a rule, were leased and provided a solid and stable extrabudgetary income, both in regular and non-standard monasteries, increased.