Orthodox Clergy Research Articles

«…Хотел было взять меня себе вместо жены и жену свою оставить законную…»: к вопросу о внебрачных связях приходского православного духовенства Оренбургской епархии второй половины XIX-начала ХХ века

Introduction. The article raises the issue of extramarital affairs of the parish Orthodox clergy of the Orenburg diocese of the post-reform period. This problem has practically not been considered in Russian historiography. Materials and methods. The ministers of the church throughout their lives had to teach lessons of high morality, demonstrate a pattern of righteous behavior and contribute to the spiritual improvement of the laity. Therefore, even psalmists were not allowed to engage in extramarital affairs. Results. However, young people who were not bound by marriage and sacred vows were easily tempted to enter into an affair with a widow or a domestic servant. Clerics did not have the opportunity to re-legitimize their relationship with a woman. As a result, young widowed priests often acquired mistresses. the clerics' addiction to alcohol contributed to entering into an illegal relationship. And also the troubles in family life. According to the "Statute of Spiritual Consistories", clerics were supposed to be defrocked and excluded from the ranks of the clergy for adultery. Conclusion. However, an analysis of materials from the funds of the United State Archive of the Orenburg region shows that such a trial attracted universal attention and contributed to discrediting the reputation of the clergy as a whole. In order to avoid a scandal, the diocesan authorities resorted to such a harsh measure only in the case of a direct confession of the accused. It is noted that both single psalmists and married clerics entered into extramarital affairs. Widowed clerics were tempted to acquire a mistress, since a second marriage was forbidden. As a result, the article concludes that extramarital affairs of the clergy of the Orenburg diocese were not a rare occurrence, although they were condemned by society and the church itself.

Images of the cemetery in the worldview of the Orthodox clergy and their influence on folk culture (the case of church journalism of the late 19th – early 20th c.)

This article analyzes the ideas of the Orthodox clergy on the cemetery as a special mortal space, reflected in the church journalism of the Tobolsk, Perm, Ryazan, Vyatka, Kursk, and Omsk diocesan journals. Firstly, the author considers how the cemetery images were associated with the system of religious values, what roles it played in the system of religious symbols and allegories, what emotional patterns it was embedded in, how close (“friend”) or distant (“foe”) the cemetery was perceived by the clergy. Secondly, the article shows to what extent the position of cemeteries in the system of values corresponded to their real state at the material and everyday level, and to what extent they fit into the folk worldview. On the way from the church ideal to their everyday practice, priests as observers and critics noted the widespread inconvenience of cemeteries, multiple conflicts with peasants (sectarians and settlers in Siberia) for actual and symbolic power over the burial space. The discrepancies between the church and folk views of the cemetery (and, more broadly, the attitude towards death) are illustrated by the study of such an aspect, as the specific culture of gravediggers, who are close to the dead like priests, but in many aspects, they are ideologically and behaviorally far from the church ideal.

Religion in the anti-imperial strategy of Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky

The research subject is the role of religion in Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky's anti-imperial practice. Past studies have focused on general issues of the author's discourse against the empire in his novels, essays, and correspondence. However, the religious aspect of his anti-imperial approach remains unexplored. This study aims to uncover Nechuy-Levytsky's use of religion against the Russian Empire in his writings. To achieve this goal, we analyzed the concept of human nature in his novels through the lens of Christian anthropology. We also explored the author's explanation of the emergence of Protestantism on Ukrainian territory during the second half of the 19th century, along with his portrayal of Protestants in his literary works. Finally, we presented the Nechuy-Levytsky view on the essence of religion. Our primary methods of analysis are analogy and hypothesis. Three main conclusions have been reached. 1. Nechuy utilizes the Christian doctrine of passion as a sin to depict literary characters. He grounds passions not in metaphysical evil but in social ones, a result of the societal structure of the Russian Empire. The redefined idea of passion is a challenge to imperial power. 2. The imperial narrative suggests that German settlers and Ukrainian believers were responsible for the spread of Protestantism. On the contrary, Nechuy-Levytsky attributes responsibility to the Orthodox clergy, who exerted dominance by using the Russian language in religious rituals and eventually disconnected from their congregations. The author's portrayal of Protestantism shows an understanding of its rational nature as a religious creed, its potential to satisfy the spiritual needs of its adherents, and its role in promoting enlightenment and religious freedom. Protestantism serves as an additional argument against the empire. 3. According to Nechuy-Levytsky, religion can be viewed as a form of magic. However, he contrasts ancient Ukraine's pantheism and Christianity's monotheism regarding the transmission of this magic. Pantheism relies on imagination to create an imaginative and poetic world, while monotheism fixates on a single object and limits creativity. Nechuy-Levytsky argues that pantheism, as a form of unrestrained religious imagination, is inherently linked to national identity. Conversely, Christian monotheism, which restricts and centralizes imagination, carries inherent imperial connotations. These religions embody the dichotomy between the nation and the empire. Christianity's limitation of pantheistic creativity thus also serves as an anti-imperial position. These concepts may lead to further examination of the role of religion in Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky's literature, his opposition to imperialism, and the anti-imperialistic intentions of Ukrainian literature.

“There were, of course, no funds, but where was there to get them from?": To the question of the financial situation of Russian Orthodox clergy abroad in 1920-1940s

“There were, of course, no funds, but where was there to get them from?": To the question of the financial situation of Russian Orthodox clergy abroad in 1920-1940s

Вплив чорносотенців на економічні процеси початку ХХ ст. на Волині

The purpose of the paper is to study the struggle for economic dominance of Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People and the Orthodox clergy of Volyn at the beginning of the 20th century. The key factors that influenced the activity of economic and financial institutions that were under the influence of the Black Hundreds are analyzed.
 The scientific novelty of the study: based on archival documents and materials of the Black Hundreds’ press, the peculiarities of the struggle for the economic dominance of the Black Hundreds and the Orthodox clergy in Volyn at the beginning of the 20th century are clarified, and the results of the activities of the Union of the Russian People and their role in the aggravation of international relations are analyzed.
 Conclusions. It is proven that since the beginning of its activity, Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People had launched an active and purposeful campaign to create a strong network of primary centers in the region. With the support of the imperial authorities and the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church, which played an active role in the process of formation of the organization, the ‘allies’ managed to achieve their goal quite quickly. They put the struggle against ‘non-Russians’ as one of their priority tasks.
 Taking into account that during the studied period in Volyn, Poles, Jews, and, to a lesser extent, German agrarian colonists played a key role in the economy, just with those ethnic groups the Black Hundreds began the struggle for economic dominance.
 They saw one of their main tasks in that field of activity in creating a number of small credit societies and opening consumer stores. Covering up themselves with demagogic slogans about Jewish usury, they actively promoted the organization’s ideology through the named institutions with the help of the influence of parish priests.
 In 1911, thanks to the persistent efforts of the Head of Pochaiv branch of the Union of the Russian People, Archimandrite Vitalii, the Black Hundreds managed to open their own bank, the main declared purpose of which was to help the peasants purchase land and oppose non-Russians in that. Due to the use of demagogic slogans, the Black Hundreds succeeded in achieving certain positive results in their efforts and strengthened their economic position in the region shortly before the First World War. However, that area of activity of the Union of the Russian People contributed to an even greater aggravation of inter-ethnic relations in Volyn during the period under study.

Voluntary Donations in the Income Structure Orthodox Clergy in the Second Half of the 19th – Early20th Century (Based on the Materials of the Mordovian Region)

Introduction. Based on the materials of the Mordovian region, one of the significant components of the income of the Orthodox clergy of the second half of the 19th – early 20th century is studied – voluntary donations. Consideration of this problem makes it possible to determine the regional aspects of the clergy’s adaptation to new socio-economic realities, which is important both theoretically and practically. Results and Discussion. In the 1860s and 1870s, the traditional form of voluntary in-kind collection for the needs of the clergy, the ruga, was preserved in most parishes. Most of the natural fees were established by the clergy shortly after Christianization and were then broadcast as a local tradition. The basis of this collection in all villages was grain. In the 1910s, in many localities of the studied region, food collections were no longer perceived as voluntary assistance to pastors, but as extortion, which negatively affected the relationship between the flock and pastors. Among the “good deeds” of parishioners in the period under review were “mug” money – funds that church visitors donated to the needs of the clergy or for specially specified purposes. This income item, which depended both on the number of the flock and on the level of well-being of local residents, varied significantly from year to year; the size of the circle income was also influenced by the size of other public fees, yield in a specific period of time, the nature of the relationship of the flock with the clergy. Conclusion. In the second half of the XIX – early XX century, there was a gradual replacement of natural forms of support for clerks with monetary fees. Another important trend established as a result of the reduction by many communities of traditional forms of material support for the clergy.

Moral Choice and the Concept of Evil in Military Narratives of Orthodox Christians

The article contributes critically to the current discussion of militant piety in Russian Orthodox Christianity. It argues for a more historically informed use of the notion of militant piety, which can benefit from critical discourse analysis of personal narratives and the focus on lived experience and lived religion of Orthodox Christians who were involved in wars. The article analyses ego-documents collected in two recent volumes: the first showcases the stories of Orthodox clergy and believers in WWII; the second volume gives voice to army officers of late Soviet wars. Both volumes mold personal accounts into a larger narrative with the view to provide Orthodox believers with discursive means for reflection upon wars and to offer an exemplary Orthodox Christian attitude to war. In these narratives, beliefs and principles were understood by religious people not abstractly but in the context of their individual and collective experience. The first narrative reveals how the course of the Great Patriotic War changed the Orthodox Christians’ attitudes from initial self-sacrificial service in defense of the Motherland to waging the sacred war against the Antichrist forces of evil and later to ensuring the retribution for Nazi criminals who were interpretatively exempt from Christian commandment of love. The second narrative does not present a normative ideal of an Orthodox warrior but rather it sheds light on real “militant piety”, on practical religiosity of soldiers and officers, who built their relationship with God and religion in the context of their professional activity, regularly described as “work”. Christian doctrine of love and forgiveness in its abstract form would be inapplicable in this “work”. In personal accounts, however, Orthodox Christian ethics is adapted to the circumstances of the military service and is transformed into the lived religion based on the principles of self-sacrifice, loyalty, and duty.

Orthodox Church and Russian Nationalism in the Second Half of the 19th Century and Early 20th Century

The article is based on the pre-revolutionary journalism. It reveals the attitude of Orthodox church authors of the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century to a number of subjects related to the problems of the Russian nationalism. The traditionally high interest of the Russian society in general and Orthodox Christians in particular in the attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church to nationalism in its various manifestations accounts for the relevance of the publication. Considering the return of the modern church journalism to the same range of problems that concerned representatives of the Orthodox clergy, theologians, missionaries and teachers of theological schools in the pre-revolutionary period, it would seem that an appeal to the historical experience of their understanding is fairly significant and essential. The article examines the ways in which church authors used to understand the nationalism, their ideas about its place in the life of an Orthodox Christian, along with its challenges and threats. It is noted that although the Orthodox Church did not have a single and consistent view of the nationalism, most church authors tried to give this phenomenon a direction that would not contradict the gospel teaching and could become a constructive and creative factor for the Russian life. At the same time, it is noted that, when discussing the nationalism, church authors of the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century often gave this concept a meaning different from that of modern scientists, politicians and journalists. Standing at the Christian viewpoint, church authors rejected the militant, “pagan”, secular kind of the nationalism that involved only the earthly prosperity of the people. They supported another kind of nationalism consisting in the right of peoples to a special spiritual path, cultural and state identity and independence.

JOHN THE THEOLOGIAN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY IN BITOLA AND SUBCARPATHIAN RUS: HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS, EDUCATIONAL PROCESS, GRADUATES

The article investigates the historical ties of Subcarpathian Rus with one of the theological institutions in the Balkans - the St. John the Theologian seminary in Bitola. The deficient educational level of the Orthodox clergy in the early 1920s is characterized. The network of Orthodox seminaries in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes during this period is shown. Based on the documents of Serbian and Ukrainian archives, the stages of attracting students from Subcarpathian Rus to study in the Kingdom's secondary and higher spiritual and theological institutions are clarified. The role of the bishops-delegates of the Serbian Orthodox Church, who served the most for the departure of entrants to study in Macedonia, is assessed. For the first time in historiography, the names of the Transcarpathians who graduated from the seminary and were ordained as priests were established. The article also mentions other seminarians who were expelled for failure or transferred to other educational institutions. The article describes the seminary's curriculum, extracurricular activities, incentives system, and students' leisure time. The annual reports of the seminary also provide an opportunity to trace the way of reforming the educational institution's curriculum, increasing and decreasing the number of hours in certain subjects. The author concludes that Bitola Theological Seminary trained about 30 priests for Subcarpathian Rus and was among the most popular and respected in the region. The Orthodox clergy who graduated from the studios in Macedonia were highly educated and able to unite the faithful in the parishes. On this basis, the diocesan hierarchs entrusted the "Bitolians" with large parishes or problematic parishes where it was necessary to normalize the situation. The conclusions outline the prospects for further research.

How the Russo-Turkish War over Ukraine (1677–81) Changed the Course of Hungarian History

How the Russo-Turkish War over Ukraine (1677–81) Changed the Course of Hungarian History

Orthodox Clergy About the Bolshevik and Nazi Types of Socialism (1930–1940s)

The article considers and analyzes the perception of the Bolshevik and Nazi regimes by the Orthodox clergy, their policy towards the Church, as well as the essence of anti-Christian doctrines. The starting point of the study is 1927 and the release of the infamous “declaration of loyalty” by Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky). In addition to further discussion about the possibility of recognizing Soviet power and solidarity with its policy of the Orthodox clergy, the article raises the question of the limits of support for political regimes that aim to combat religion. The period of the Great Patriotic War is subjected to special consideration, when many bishops and priests revised their views on the communist system in the Soviet Union, both due to the political situation and due to the transformation of their own opinion. Also, a polar view of the clergy on German National Socialism arose, depended on being on one side or the other of the front.

“By the Action of Love to Overcome the Agitation of Their Hatred”: The Taurida Clergy Against Socialism (based on the materials of the theological, journalistic and memoir heritage of bishops and priests)

The article examines and analyzes the views of the clergy of the Taurida Diocese on socialist ideology. It is noted that local bishops and clergymen were consistent critics of socialism. This is evidenced by numerous materials of the official publications of the Taurida Diocese — the “Taurida Diocesan News” and the “Taurida Church and Public Bulletin”. The main motives of the rejection of socialism by the Orthodox clergy are shown. The emphasis is placed on the activities of Bishop Alexiy (Molchanov), who headed the Taurida diocese during the revolutionary events of 1905–1907 and tried to protect his flock from socialist propaganda. The negative attitude of the Orthodox clergy towards socialism can be considered as one of the reasons for the subsequent persecution of it during the revolution and the Civil War.

Representatives of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches from the Belarusian-Lithuanian Provinces in the State Duma of the Russian Empire

Representatives of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches from the Belarusian-Lithuanian provinces in the State Duma of the first and fourth convocations took an active part in political and legislative activities, influenced the development of the socio-political and socio-economic situation, both in the territory of the region and the Russian Empire in general. Due to the support of the deputies and the Orthodox clergy, measures were taken to inhance the situation of the Orthodox Church, to develop school affairs, and draft laws were developed to improve the situation of the peasant population. The deputies representing the Catholic Church mostly supported the rights of the church and the Catholics. For the majority of deputies, as well as the Orthodox and Catholic clergy, the period of Duma activity was the peak of their socio-political career.

“Early Christian Communism”: Russian Church Journalism in the Latter Half of XIX — Early XX Century About the Phenomenon of the Jerusalem Community

The article considers and analyzes the views of Russian church authors in the latter half of XIX – early XX century (orthodox clergy, scholars, teachers of theological schools) toward the phenomenon of the Jerusalem community and the attempts of supporters of socialist views to treat the patterns of life and thought of Jerusalem Christians as an “early Christian”, “apostolic” or “ancient Christian” communism. Through the example of the critical scrutiny by church authors of the book “The Acts of the Apostles”, the paper shows their interpretations of property relations established in the Jerusalem community, reasons of its unique character, exegesis of the fall of Ananias and Sapphire, as well as fundamental differences of life of first Christians from the communist ideal. It testifies that notwithstanding the insignificant disparity of valuations concerning the Jerusalem community, its experience, achievements and period of existence, church authors had an undivided opinion in terms of disagreement with the fallacy of division between property relations of the community with those proclaimed by ideologists of socialism and communism.

Первые годы деятельности Астраханского епархиального комитета Православного миссионерского общества (по материалам Государственного архива Астраханской области)

Introduction. The article analyzes and introduces into scientific discourse a set of archival documents included in Collection 597 — ‘Astrakhan Diocesan Committee of the Missionary Orthodox Society’ — of the State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast dealing with the Committee’s earliest years and key directions of its activity. Materials and methods. The study employs comparative and historical/descriptive methods of research. The work analyzes the mentioned archival documents of 1870–1874 containing materials on work activity management within the Committee, personnel and financial policies, reports on its grand opening and the formation of a general meeting, analytical notes and appeals of committee members, interdepartmental correspondence on organizational issues, correspondence with the Orthodox clergy of Astrakhan Governorate and their reports, letters about translation, publishing, and academic efforts of the Committee. Results. The paper introduces a set of documents related to the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee. Conclusions. The materials discovered in Collection 597 (State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast) and specifically those covering the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee do add to the panorama of missionary tools and techniques once employed by the Russian Orthodox Church in Kalmyk Steppe throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mention personalities to have served as members of the Committee, clarify as to sources and amounts of financing, problems and prospects faced by Orthodox Christian missionaries in Kalmyk uluses (districts). The creation of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee gave rise to extended translation and publishing activities, intensified the training of missionaries supposed to spread Orthodox Christianity in Kalmyk Steppe in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Первые годы деятельности Астраханского епархиального комитета Православного миссионерского общества (по материалам Государственного архива Астраханской области)

Introduction. The article analyzes and introduces into scientific discourse a set of archival documents included in Collection 597 — ‘Astrakhan Diocesan Committee of the Missionary Orthodox Society’ — of the State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast dealing with the Committee’s earliest years and key directions of its activity. Materials and methods. The study employs comparative and historical/descriptive methods of research. The work analyzes the mentioned archival documents of 1870–1874 containing materials on work activity management within the Committee, personnel and financial policies, reports on its grand opening and the formation of a general meeting, analytical notes and appeals of committee members, interdepartmental correspondence on organizational issues, correspondence with the Orthodox clergy of Astrakhan Governorate and their reports, letters about translation, publishing, and academic efforts of the Committee. Results. The paper introduces a set of documents related to the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee. Conclusions. The materials discovered in Collection 597 (State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast) and specifically those covering the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee do add to the panorama of missionary tools and techniques once employed by the Russian Orthodox Church in Kalmyk Steppe throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mention personalities to have served as members of the Committee, clarify as to sources and amounts of financing, problems and prospects faced by Orthodox Christian missionaries in Kalmyk uluses (districts). The creation of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee gave rise to extended translation and publishing activities, intensified the training of missionaries supposed to spread Orthodox Christianity in Kalmyk Steppe in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Світська преса Київської губернії про церковнопарафіяльне шкільництво наприкінці ХІХ – на початку ХХ ст. (на прикладі Уманського повіту)

Th e study aims is to systematize and analyze the publications about church-parochial schooling in the Uman district, which were found in the provincial newspapers «Kievskoe Slovo», «Kievlyanin», «Life and Art» in order to fi nd out the nature of the coverage of the topic by the secular press within the limits of the micro-historical approach. Th e research methodolo- gy involved the use of the principles of historicism, scientifi c objectivity, systematicity and com plexity. Th e article uses such methods as problem-chronological, descriptive, systematization, heuristic-search. Th e scientifi c novelty lies in the fact that the used sources not only expand the range of knowledge about church-parish schooling, but also convey information about critical aspects of the overall positive assessment of this link of education. Having a secular character, the examined provincial newspapers published information from correspondents, which combined offi cial data and echoes of public opinion. Conclusions. In the years of the rise of church-parish schooling, the secular press of the Kyiv province paid attention to this important matter. Th is was due to the improvement of the informational and legal basis of the functioning of this link of the education of the people, the parish schools of the end of the 19th – beginning of the 19th century. 20th century one and a half dozen publications were devoted to only one Uman district. Th eir thematic direction in a generalized form can be defi ned as follows: statistics of the school network, reports on the state of schools based on the results of visits by offi cials, criticism of the methods of auditing schools, the results of student examinations, the care of Orthodox clergy by schools. Publications have value both as sources of information and as a refl ection of evaluative judgments of that time.

Orthodoxy, religious nationalism, and the Jews in Romania

ABSTRACT This article examines anti-Semitism in Romanian Orthodoxy prior to World War II and during the Romanian Holocaust. Romanian religious ethnonationalism articulated by hierarchs, clergy, and theologians provided the ideological backdrop for government anti-Semitic measures, underpinned the ideology of a violent religious-fascist organisation, and fostered a social ethos and suspension of morality which facilitated participation of Orthodox clergy and faithful in the mistreatment of Jews. Subsequently, the Church sought to conceal its role in the persecution of the Jews, portraying itself as a powerless victim of fascism. The paper advances a fivefold typology of a majority church behaviour towards religious and ethnic minorities, and concludes that the attitude of the Romanian Orthodox Church towards Jews in the 1930s and during World War II was largely one of approval, connivance, and collusion with discrimination and violence, to the detriment of the universality of the Gospel and the Church, and Christian charity.

R. Chris Davis. Hungarian Religion, Romanian Blood: A Minority’s Struggle for National Belonging, 1920–1945.

R. Chris Davis. <i>Hungarian Religion, Romanian Blood: A Minority’s Struggle for National Belonging, 1920–1945</i>.

The Political Role of the Orthodox Clergy in the Union of the Romanian Principalities (1859)

"The union of the Romanian Principalities was a decisive moment in the history and evolution of the modern Romanian state, but its realization cannot be separated from the actions of the bishops and clergy, who were co-opted in the electoral process from the very beginning. The activity of the clergy was not strictly limited to the bureaucratic management of the elections but revealed a set of political beliefs, actively supporting the idea of Romanians’ national unity. This paper aims to insist on the political partisanship of the clergy respectively, on the immediate consequences of their involvement in political life. Keywords: Romanian Orthodox Church, Union of the Romanian Principalities, State and Church, Sofronie Miclescu, Nifon Rusăilă, Alexandru Ioan Cuza"