Turkey Origin Research Articles

Fever of unknown origin in Turkey: evaluation of 87 cases during a nine-year-period of study.

To investigate fever of unknown origin (FUO) in 87 patients. We investigated 87 (61 male) patients with FUO using the criteria of Petersdorf and Beeson [Medicine 40 (1961) 1] hospitalized between January 1994 and August 2002 at Cukurova University Hospital. The median age of the patients was 38.5 years (range: 14-80 years). Eleven patients (12.6%) were over 65. The mean duration of hospitalization was 22.5+/-13 days. Infectious diseases were the most common causes of FUO. Tuberculosis (n=15, 17.2%), infective endocarditis (n=6), abdominal abscess (n=6), brucellosis (n=5), urinary tract infection (n=5), visceral leishmaniasis (n=4), salmonellosis (n=3), rhinocerebral mucormycosis (n=4), atypical pneumonia, cerebral toxoplasmosis, Cytomegalovirus infection or encephalitis were diagnosed in 51 (58.6%) patients. The second most common causes of FUO were collagen vascular diseases (n=16, 18.3%) determined as vasculitis syndrome, adult Still's disease (n=4), systemic lupus erythematosus, Behçet's disease, juvenile ankylosing spondylitis. Neoplasm was found in 12 (13.7%) patients; (non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, chronic myeloid leukemia, gastrointestinal tract carcinoma, glioma). Miscellaneous diseases thyroiditis, granulomatous hepatitis were diagnosed in two (2.2%) patients. On admission, six patients (6.8%) were neutropenic. Infectious diseases, especially tuberculosis, were the leading diagnostic category of FUO in this study. Adult Still's disease was more common than expected. An aetiological diagnosis could not be reached in six (7%) patients who were followed for 1 year. Five of these patients completely recovered, and one patient died.

Interactions of poult enteritis and mortality syndrome-associated reovirus with various cell types in vitro

An avian reovirus, ARV-CU98, has recently been isolated from poults experiencing poult enteritis and mortality syndrome (PEMS). To further understand ARV-CU98 and its role in PEMS, the current study investigates interactions of ARV-CU98 with various cell types in vitro. When macrophages, B cells, T cells, and liver cells of chicken or turkey origin were co-incubated with ARV-CU98, only cells of liver origin demonstrated cytopathic effects, the presence of viral antigen, and reduced metabolic activity over time. Furthermore, distinctive pockets of viral particles were evident in electron microscopic examination of a chicken hepatocellular carcinoma (LMH) cell line, but not in a chicken macrophage cell line (MQ-NCSU) co-incubated with virus. Additional evidence of viral replication in LMH, cells but not MQ-NCSU cells was demonstrated by the presence of two viral bands (43 and 145 kD size) in cell lysates from LMH cells exposed to ARV-CU98. Although not capable of being infected by ARV-CU98, MQ-NCSU cells do appear to be activated by the virus since IL-1 mRNA expression is increased in MQ-NCSU cells 2 h after addition of the virus. LMH cells exposed to the virus demonstrate a decrease in IL-1 mRNA expression by 8 to 10 h after addition of the virus, perhaps corresponding to the initiation of infection by the virus. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that ARV-CU98 actively infects and replicates in LMH cells, but not in lymphocytes or macrophages, suggesting that the liver may be a target and site of replication of ARV-CU98 in poults experiencing PEMS.

Genetic Diversity in Wild and Weedy Aegilops, Amblyopyrum, and Secale Species—A Preliminary Survey

The wild and weedy relatives of bread wheat, Triticum aestivum L., are suggested as potential sources of useful alleles for bread wheat improvement. For example, the genus Aegilops L. has contributed two of the three bread wheat genomes. In this study we measured the nature and extent of allozyme variation for 10 isozymes in three diploid and eight polyploid Aegilops, one Amblyopyrum (Jaub. & Spach), and one feral Secale L. species collected from 15 populations in their centers of origin in Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, and California. The predominantly autogamous Aegilops species were, to a large extent, homozygous and homogeneous. The presence of heterozygous genotypes in Aegilops tauschii Coss. (H0 = 0.0033 ± 0.01) and Ae. crassa Boiss (H0 = 0.0048 ± 0.08) indicated the possibility of limited facultative outcrossing in these Aegilops species. The obligate outcrossers, Amblyopyrum muticum (Boiss.) Eig (He = 0.09 ± 0.16) and Secale cereale L. (He = 0.09 − 0.13), showed less than expected genetic variation. The extent and nature of genetic variation were identical between the introduced Californian Ae. cylindrica Host and that which occurs in the Fertile Crescent (He = 0.00); however, in Ae. triuncialis L., the introduced Californian population had a higher genetic diversity estimate (He = 0.06 ± 0.12) than the population from the Fertile Crescent (He = 0.00). The average genetic distance between the polyploid Aegilops species was greater (D = 0.64 ± 0.28) than that observed between the diploid Aegilops species (D = 0.18 ± 0.10), or between the diploid Aegilops and weedy S. cereale (D = 0.52 ± 0.06). We discuss the implication of these findings for germplasm collection and wheat breeding.

Antigenic and Genomic Relatedness of Turkey-Origin Coronaviruses, Bovine Coronaviruses, and Infectious Bronchitis Virus of Chickens

In earlier studies in our laboratory, we found that bovine coronavirus (BCV) was pathogenic for 1-day-old turkey poults. This finding prompted us to study the antigenic and genomic relatedness of turkey origin coronaviruses (TOCVs) to BCV. A one-step reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting a 730-base pair fragment of the nucleocapsid (N) gene of BCV and a nested PCR targeting a 407-base pair fragment of the N gene were used in an attempt to detect TOCV from North Carolina, Indiana, and a prototype turkey coronavirus (TCV) obtained from the American Type Culture Collection. Both the one-step RT-PCR and the nested PCR amplified cell culture-passaged isolates of calf diarrhea strains of BCV but none of the 15 tested TOCVs or transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus of swine. TOCVs also did not cross-react in a BCV antigen-capture (AC) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against N, spike glycoprotein, and hemagglutinin esterase glycoprotein proteins of BCV as coating antibodies. The same TOCVs could be detected with primers designed from the genome of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) of chickens. These primers amplified a 1082-base pair region spanning portions of the membrane glycoprotein (M) and N protein genes of IBV and TCV. The TOCVs also cross-reacted in an AC-ELISA with MAbs against the M and subunit 2 of spike glycoprotein of IBV.

Susceptibility of ducks to avian pneumovirus of turkey origin.

To determine the susceptibility of ducks to avian pneumovirus (APV) of turkey origin. 30 Pekin ducks that were 2 weeks old. Ducks were assigned to 3 groups (10 ducks/group). Ducks of groups 1 and 2 were inoculated (day 0) with 200 microl of cell-culture fluid containing APV of turkey origin (10(5.5) median tissue-culture infective dose/ml) by the oculonasal (group 1) or oral (group 2) route. Ducks of group 3 served as noninoculated control birds. Two ducks from each group were euthanatized 3, 6, 9, 15, and 21 days after inoculation. Blood samples, tissue samples from the lungs, trachea, nasal turbinates, duodenum, diverticulum vitellinum (Meckel's diverticulum), and cecum, and swab specimens from the choana, cloaca, and trachea were obtained from all birds during necropsy and examined for APV by use of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), virus isolation, and histologic examination. Blood samples also were examined for APV antibodies, using an ELISA. Tissue samples obtained up to 21 days after inoculation had positive results when tested by use of RT-PCR. Virus was isolated from nasal turbinates of birds inoculated via the oculonasal route. Serum samples obtained 15 and 21 days after inoculation had positive results when tested for APV-specific antibody. Clinical signs of disease were not observed in ducks inoculated with APV of turkey origin. Ducks inoculated with APV of turkey origin may not develop clinical signs of disease, but they are suspected to play a role as nonclinical carriers of APV.

Population Genetics of Factor V Leiden in Europe

ABSTRACTWe have analyzed 5971 control individuals originating from 26 geographically defined populations in Europe and neighboring countries for the presence of factor V Leiden, an important genetic risk factor in venous thromboembolism. The mean frequency of the mutation in the populations studied is 0.027%, with a peak value incidence of more than 12% in Cyprus; the mutation is absent in Inuits and is at low incidence in French Basques. A west to east increasing cline of allele factor V Leiden prevalence (r = 0.479, p < 0.02) was observed in Europe, together with a decreasing south to north cline (r = −0.801, p < 0.001) of these values—but in this last situation only when southwest populations are excluded from the analysis. Based on these findings, an interpretation is proposed of the history of factor V Leiden expansion in Europe during the Neolithic period, from a probable Anatolian center of origin in Turkey.

Susceptibility of Broiler Chicks to Infection by Avian Pneumovirus of Turkey Origin

In this paper we present the results of studies on the infectivity of an isolate of avian pneumovirus (APV) from turkeys to broiler chickens. Two-week-old broiler chicks free of antibodies to APV were exposed either by oculonasal or oral route with a cell cultured APV of turkey origin. Chickens from both APV-inoculated groups exhibited clinical signs that included coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, and watery eyes during 2-8 days postinoculation. Tissue samples from birds in the APV-inoculated group were positive for APV by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) up to 9 days postinoculation. Samples of blood from both oculonasally and orally infected chickens were positive for APV. Intestinal samples from chickens infected with APV orally were positive for the presence of APV on PCR up to 9 days postinoculation. APV was reisolated from samples taken from chickens in both groups inoculated orally and oculonasally. Sera from birds exposed by the oculonasal or by the oral route showed the presence of APV-specific antibodies.

On the Origins of Majālis Al-tujjār in Mid-nineteenth Century Egypt

AbstractSeeking to establish the origins of Majālis al-Tujjār, the special mixed commercial courts of Alexandria and Cairo which existed from the mid-1840s until the mid-1870s, I examine whether the Majālis had their origin in Turkey or in Egypt; and whether or not they served foreign interests and were part of the capitulations system. The evidence of a legal case registered in the court records (sijillāt) of the Cairo court suggests that the Majālis, though established as a result of a concerted action of a number of European consuls general in Egypt, were not part of the capitulations system. To the contrary, they were designed to restrict the legal side of that system, that is, consular jurisdiction.

Assessing the Significance of Reverse Transcriptase Activity in Chick Cell-derived Vaccines

A recent publication reported the detection of low levels of the enzyme reverse transcriptase (RTase) in live vaccines prepared in chick embryo cells. The enzyme was detected using an assay with greatly increased sensitivity compared to more conventional methods. The authors have confirmed the observation of RTase activity and demonstrate that the activity is not dependent on the production of viral vaccines in chick cells but is present ubiquitously in chick embryonic fluids.The authors have also been unable to transmit the RTase activity from chick cells to a wide variety of cells of human, monkey, rabbit and turkey origin, suggesting that the activity is not associated with an avian agent capable of infecting these cells. It is concluded that the data available present no cause for concern over the safety of vaccines derived in chick cells and current WHO requirements for such vaccines remain appropriate.

In-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium perfringens from commercial turkey and broiler chicken origin

The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of eight antibiotics and two anticoccidial agents were determined for Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from 26 commercial broiler farms and 22 commercial turkey farms. Isolates were obtained from the intestines of birds on the farm or at the processing plant using standard culture and identification techniques. The microbroth dilution test was used to determine the MIC for each compound. Most isolates from chickens had MICs in the range of 2–16 mg/L for tilmicosin, tylosin and virginiamycin, whereas the MICs for avilamycin, avoparcin, monensin, narasin and penicillin were ≤1 mg/L. Most strains from chickens had high MICs (≥64 mg/L) and appeared to be resistant to bacitracin and lincomycin. Most turkey isolates had MICs in the range of 2–16 mg/L for bacitracin, tilmicosin, tylosin and virginiamycin, with strains exhibiting MICs ≤ 1 mg/L for avilamycin, avoparcin, monensin, narasin and penicillin. Several turkey isolates had MICs ≥ 64 mg/L to lincomycin. No attempt was made to associate farm usage of a particular antibiotic to the antibiograms.

Efficacy of Salmonella enteritidis (SE)-Immune Lymphokines from Chickens and Turkeys on SE Liver Invasion in One-Day-Old Chicks and Turkey Poults

We have shown previously that increased resistance to Salmonella enteritidis (SE) organ infectivity in 1-day-old chicks was conferred by the immunoprophylactic administration of SE-immune lymphokines (SEILK). These lymphokines have been found to be present in the cell culture media of concanavalin A-stimulated splenic lymphocytes obtained from SE-immunized chickens. In the present study we evaluated whether turkeys also produced SEILK and whether these lymphokines could protect 1-day-old chicks and turkey poults against SE liver invasion. In addition, we tested the ability of our original chicken SEILK to reduce SE liver invasion in turkey poults. Day-of-hatch chicks and turkey poults were injected intraperitoneally with immune lymphokines of either chicken or turkey origin. One hour later the birds were challenged per os with SE, and 20 hours later their livers were examined by bacteriological methods for the presence of SE. We found that SEILK induced from the splenic lymphocytes of SE-immunized turkeys reduced SE liver invasion in both chicks and turkey poults. Conversely, we also determined that SEILK produced by chicken splenic lymphocytes conferred protection against invasion by SE in turkey poults. This research is the first report of the production of SEILK in turkeys and also the first report on the cross-species activity of these effector molecules in chickens and turkeys.

Comparative Pathology of Intravenously Inoculated Wild Duck- and Turkey-Origin Type A Influenza Viruses in Chickens

Five-week-old specific-pathogen-free chickens were inoculated intravenously with one of 16 low-pathogenicity type A influenza virus isolates; 14 were of wild duck origin, and two were of turkey origin. Tubulointerstitial nephritis was the most frequent specific histopathologic change. The frequency and severity of kidney lesions were independent of the virus hemagglutinin-neuraminidase subtype or titer of the challenge virus. Influenza nucleoprotein was most frequently demonstrated in the kidney and was consistently localized to necrotic proximal and/or distal renal tubule epithelium. Common nonspecific histopathologic changes were lymphoid hyperplasia of the spleen and cecal tonsils, as well as lymphocyte depletion in the cloacal bursa. Uncommon histopathologic changes, in decreasing order of frequency, were interstitial pneumonia, lymphoid follicular hyperplasia in the myocardium, and lymphocytic tracheitis. Histopathologic changes were rare or absent in the jejunum, duodenum, pancreas, and brain. The low-pathogenicity avian-origin type A influenza virus isolates were epitheliotropic in chickens, primarily nephrotropic. Such findings were dissimilar from findings with highly pathogenic avian-origin type A influenza virus isolates both in severity and in tissue distribution of histopathologic changes and influenza viral antigen.

Invasion of Epithelial Cell Monolayers by Turkey Strains of Pasteurella multocida

Two serotype 3,4:A strains of Pasteurella multocida that differ in virulence in turkeys were examined for their ability to invade epithelial cell monolayers grown in tissue culture. Both organisms were comparably adherent to cells of turkey kidney origin. However, the virulent strain (86-1913) penetrated primary turkey kidney epithelial cell monolayers at 10 times the level of the low-virulence vaccine strain. The virulent strain was also able to invade porcine epithelial cells (PK15) and feline epithelial cells (CRFK) in cell culture. Neither organism invaded rabbit epithelial cells (RK13). Invasion of turkey cells was prevented by inhibition of bacterial protein or RNA synthesis but not by pretreatment of the monolayers with periodate, trypsin, or neuraminidase. Invasion might be a mechanism of pathogenicity for this organism, contributing to colonization or virulence.

Characterization of a Group D Rotavirus

A rotavirus isolated from the intestinal contents of commercial ring-neck pheasant chicks was determined to be a group D rotavirus based on its RNA electropherotype and its serologic relatedness to known turkey group A and D rotaviruses using immune electron microscopy and agar-gel immunodiffusion assays. Further characterization revealed a buoyant density in cesium chloride of 1.347 g/cm3 for double-shelled particles and 1.365 g/cm3 for single-shelled particles. The average size for the pheasant-origin group D rotavirus was determined to be 80 nm for double-shelled particles and 70 nm for single-shelled particles. In contrast, the average size for a turkey group A rotavirus isolate was determined to be 73 nm for double-shelled particles and 60 nm for single-shelled particles. There was no evidence of viral replication by the pheasant-origin group D rotavirus (either cytopathic effect or increase in numbers of viral particles) after six passages in MA104 cells. The hemagglutinating activity of the pheasant origin group D rotavirus was compared with that of a turkey origin group A rotavirus. Differences and similarities were noted depending upon the species of erythrocytes employed and the temperature of incubation.

β-Thalassemia problems in the Turkish population in the F.R.G.

A sample of 165 normal Turkish probands (79 males, 86 females) living in the F.R.G. was screened for the presence of heterozygous β-thalassemia as well as their knowledge and perception of thalassemias in general. Hematologic studies revealed two persons to be heterozygous for β-thalassemia who had not known this before. This incidence of 1.2% in our sample of Turkish probands living in the F.R.G. is in accordance with the average range of 0.2–6% given by the World Health Organization for Turkey. The probands' places of origin in Turkey correlate well with the pattern of migration within the country, with most people coming from central Anatolia which is an area with a relatively low incidence of β-thalassemia. Interviews conducted by a Turkish doctor revealed that the knowledge about thalassemias and the function of blood in general was extremely limited in our study population. On the other hand, 50% of the respondents would refrain from marriage or choose a different partner if both partners knew that they were heterozygous for thalassemia. 19% would still marry in this situation but refrain from having children. When asked about their most likely decision in the case of an early diagnosis of homozygous thalassemia, 78% said they would have a termination and only 15% would definitely go on with the pregnancy. About 65% felt that consanguineous marriage is a predisposing factor for diseases in the offspring. From our study it can be concluded that a large-scale screening program in the high-risk population which exists in most Mediterranean countries would be difficult regarding the more than one million people from Turkey living in the F.R.G. and would have to take into account the cultural and educational conditions of the Turkish minority. In general, if no Turkish-speaking specialist is available to explain the diagnostic possibilities, probably pre-pregnancy or early pregnancy testing would be the most appropriate way of reaching the couples at risk in the German medical system.

Experimental infections of one‐day‐old poults with turkey isolates of infectious bursal disease virus

One-day-old poults infected with infectious bursal disease virus of turkey origin (TIBDV) suffered a prolonged (3 to 4 week) suppression of the cellular immune response and a decrease in the plasma cell population of the Harderian gland. By immunofluorescent techniques, IBDV was demonstrated to persist for 7 days post infection. Antigen was demonstrated in bursal epithelium at the apex of the plica and was never seen in the follicle or cortex. Infection with TIBDV generally presented as a silent disease.

Chlamydia psittaci Latex Agglutination text Antigen A for Rapid Detection of Antibody Activity in Avian Sera: Comparison with Direct Complement Fixation and Isolation Results

Cell-culture-grown Chlamydia psittaci of turkey origin was treated with phenol and partially purified by differential centrifugation. The most stable antigen/latex mixture occurred with crude antigen precipitated by dimethyl sulfoxide and digested with trypsin. Agglutination reactions occurred within 2 minutes when antigen/latex and antibody-positive serum mixtures were rotated to facilitate contact of the reagents. Nonspecific agglutination of control latex occurred with 1.2% of clinical sera. When C. psittaci was isolated from feces from individual birds, latex agglutination (LA) and direct complement fixation (DCF) together detected antibody activity (titers greater than or equal to 8) in significantly more cases than did DCF alone. It follows, then, that an LA titer alone is highly indicative of a currently active infection or one that has occurred only recently. The isolation rate from birds that had no antibody activity detectable by LA or DCF was 3.8%. In tests on paired clinical sera, LA and DCF agreed in 72.5% of the cases regarding increased, decreased, or stable titers. For detection of antibody activity in single sera, LA had a sensitivity of 39.1% and a specificity of 98.8% relative to DCF detection of antibody activity. The high specificity corroborates the usefulness of LA as an indicator of current or very recent infection.

Serological Survey of Infectious Bursal Disease Virus Serotypes 1 and 2 in California Turkeys

The prevalence of two infectious bursal disease (IBD) viruses--serotype 1, of chicken origin, and serotype 2, of turkey origin--was studied in California turkeys. Serum samples were collected from 15 turkey flocks representing nine counties. The virus-neutralization test was used. Overall, only 15% of 342 samples were positive for serotype 1, whereas 89% were positive for serotype 2. However, 12 out of 15 flocks had a least one sample positive for serotype 1, and 14 out of 15 flocks had at least one sample positive for serotype 2. Flocks with antibodies to serotype 1 had low geometric mean titers (GMTs) (1.5 to 8.8) and low-to-medium prevalence rates (5 to 53.3%). Flocks with antibodies to serotype 2 had high GMTs (36.8 to 2048) and high prevalence rates (60 to 100%). Results of this study lead us to question the efficacy of IBD vaccination in turkeys.

Efficacy and Safety of a Cell-Culture Live Virus Vaccine for Hemorrhagic Enteritis of Turkeys: Laboratory Studies

Poults free from hemorrhagic enteritis (HE) antibody were vaccinated by gavage at 1 day or 2 weeks of age with a live HE vaccine virus that had been propagated in a Marek's disease (MD)-induced B-lymphoblastoid cell line of turkey origin. Vaccinated and unvaccinated poults were challenged with a virulent HE virus at various times postvaccination. One hundred tissue-culture-infectious doses of the vaccine virus per poult were sufficient to induce a serological response as well as to protect poults against HE lesions and mortality. Vaccinated poults were protected against the disease as early as 1 week and as late as 8 weeks PV. The vaccine was efficacious by several routes of application. The vaccine virus spread horizontally from vaccinated to contact-exposed poults, as indicated by seroconversion and resistance of contact-exposed poults to challenge. The vaccine had no detectable harmful effects on the humoral immune response to particulate antigens or on weight gain of vaccinated poults. The vaccine proved to be free from MD virus, as indicated by the absence of MD lesions and antibody in 8-week-old chickens inoculated intra-abdominally with the vaccine at hatching. These findings indicate that the cell-culture-propagated HE vaccine is efficacious and safe.

Resistance of wild birds to infection by Chlamydia psittaci of mammalian origin.

Numerous species of birds are natural hosts of C. psittaci and have been implicated as sources of certain strains that cause disease in other vertebrate species, notably those producing psittacosis or ornithosis in humans [1]. Although direct evidence of their involvement in the transmission of chlamydiae to other mammals, especially domesticated ruminants, has not been reported, a careful examination of this possibility is justified [1]. When inoculated parenterally, polyarthritis-producing chlamydiae of ovine origin affected leg joints of turkeys, and abortion-producing chlamydiae of ovine origin was infectious for pigeons and fatal for sparrows [2]. However, several species of small wild birds (three of which were used in the experiments reported here), when inoculated perorally with C. psittaci of turkey origin, seroconverted (36%) and shed the organism (79%) [3]. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to determine whether strains of C. psittaci from domesticated ruminants would infect, multiply in, or be shed by these wild birds. The results indicate that these species of birds are not natural hosts or biologic vectors of these strains. However, considering the heterogeneity of Chlamydia species, certain birds may harbor strains that are associated with naturally occurring infections in some animals. The results also are additional evidence of the more restricted host range of mammalian Chlamydia species as compared to that of avian isolates.