Origin States Research Articles

Pro-inflammatory activation of microglia in the brain of patients with sepsis.

AimsExperimental data suggest that systemic immune activation may create a pro‐inflammatory environment with microglia activation in the central nervous system in the absence of overt inflammation, which in turn may be deleterious in conditions of neurodegenerative disease. The extent to which this is relevant for the human brain is unknown. The central aim of this study is to provide an in‐depth characterization of the microglia and macrophage response to systemic inflammation.MethodsWe used recently described markers to characterize the origin and functional states of microglia/macrophages in white and grey matter in patients who died under septic conditions and compared it to those patients without systemic inflammation.ResultsWe found pro‐inflammatory microglia activation in septic patients in the white matter, with very little activation in the grey matter. Using a specific marker for resident microglia (TMEM119), we found that parenchyma microglia were activated and that there was additional recruitment of perivascular macrophages. Pro‐inflammatory microglia activation occurred in the presence of homeostatic microglia cells. In contrast to inflammatory or ischaemic diseases of the brain, the anti‐inflammatory microglia markers CD163 or CD206 were not expressed in acute sepsis. Furthermore, we found pronounced upregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase not only in microglia, but also in astrocytes and endothelial cells.ConclusionOur results demonstrate the pronounced effects of systemic inflammation on the human brain and have important implications for the selection of control populations for studies on microglia activation in human brain disease.

Quantitative recurrence results for random walks

First, we prove an almost sure local central limit theorem for lattice random walks in the plane. The corresponding version for random walks in the line has been considered previously by the author. This gives us an extension of Pólya’s Recurrence Theorem, namely we consider an appropriate subsequence of the random walk and give the asymptotic number of returns to the origin and other states. Secondly, we prove an almost sure local central limit theorem for (not necessarily lattice) random walks in the line or in the plane, which will also give us quantitative recurrence results. Finally, we prove a version of the almost sure central limit theorem for multidimensional random walks. This is done by exploiting a technique developed by the author.

What makes you go back home? Determinants of the duration of migration of Mexican immigrants in the United States

This paper examines the optimal migration duration of Mexican immigrants in the USA using individual-level data from the Mexican Migration Project (MMP). A simple theoretical model rationalizes the decision of the migrant to return to Mexico, despite higher wages in the USA. I use the Cox proportional hazard model to empirically examine the determinants of return migration of Mexican immigrants. This paper contributes to the literature by introducing distances from origin states in Mexico to destination states in the USA as a proxy for costs of migration and uses a US expected wage measure instead of the average US real wages. The empirical analysis shows that the optimal migration duration increases as the US expected wage increases. Importantly, tighter US migration policies have an ambiguous effect on the optimal migration duration while longer distances decrease the hazard of return to their state of origin.

Explaining the rise of diaspora institutions

ABSTRACTOrigin-state institutions dedicated to emigrants and their descendants have been largely unnoticed by mainstream political studies even though diaspora institutions are now found in over half the countries of the world. In response, we first develop alternative theories explaining diaspora institution emergence. They emerge to: ‘tap’ diasporas for resources vital to origin-state development and security; ‘embrace’ diasporas to help define origin-state political identity and achieve domestic political goals; or ‘govern’ diasporas in ways that demonstrate origin-state adherence to global norms. Second, we investigate empirical support for these tapping, embracing and governing explanations in regression and related analyses of diaspora institution emergence in 113 origin states observed from 1992 to 2012. Findings suggest support for all three perspectives with more robust evidentiary support for governing. Our analyses suggest several directions for future research on how and why diaspora institutions emerge for different origin-state purposes.

The microfoundations of diaspora politics: unpacking the state and disaggregating the diaspora

ABSTRACTRecognising the need to unpack ‌the ‘state’ and‌ ‌problematise‌ the term‌ ‘diaspora’, in this special issue we examine the various actors within (and beyond) the state that participate in the design and implementation of diaspora policies, as well as the mechanisms through which ‌‌‌diasporas‌‌ are constructed by governments, political parties, diaspora entrepreneurs, or international organisations‌. Ex‌‌tant theories are often hard-pressed to capture the empirical variation and often end up identifying ‘exceptions’. We‌‌ theorise these ‘exceptions’ through three interrelated‌ conceptual moves: First, ‌‌we focus on‌ ‌‌underst‌udie‌d‌ aspects of the relationships between states as well as organised non-state actors and their citizens or co-ethnics‌ abroad (‌‌or at home – in cases of return migration).‌ Second, ‌‌we‌ ‌‌examine dyads of ‌origin states and specific diasporic communities differentiated by time of emigration, place of residence, socio-economic status, migratory status, generation, or skills. T‌hird‌‌,‌ ‌we ‌consider‌ migration in its multiple spatial and temporal phases (emigration, immigration, transit, return‌‌)‌ and ‌how the‌‌‌y‌‌ inter‌sect to‌‌ constitute diasporic identities‌‌ and policies. ‌‌These‌ conceptual moves contribute to comparative research in the field and allow us to identify the mechanisms‌ connect‌ing structural variable‌‌s with ‌ specific policies by states ‌(and other actors‌) as well as responses‌ by the relevant ‌diasporic ‌communi‌ties‌‌.

Reality or pretense? Renouncing nationality and organized hypocrisy of the sovereignty of Taiwan

Adopting Krasner’s thesis of organized hypocrisy, this research examined the institution of sovereignty in regard to the naturalization of migrant spouses in Taiwan. Using migrant spouses as a case study, this article argues that the hypocrisy of Taiwan’s sovereignty lies in demanding migrants to renounce their native nationality or cancel their household registration. This demand not only fails to prevent statelessness but also prompts the origin state to recognize or reject Taiwan’s sovereignty. The interactions between Taiwan and the origin states of migrant spouses from Japan, Vietnam and China underline the hypocrisy of Taiwan’s sovereignty. The more Taiwan insists on migrant spouses renouncing their original nationality, the more this destabilizes Taiwan’s sovereignty because of its lack of international recognition.

Loss of 'homeostatic' microglia and patterns of their activation in active multiple sclerosis.

Microglia and macrophages accumulate at the sites of active demyelination and neurodegeneration in the multiple sclerosis brain and are thought to play a central role in the disease process. We used recently described markers to characterize the origin and functional states of microglia/macrophages in acute, relapsing and progressive multiple sclerosis. We found microglia activation in normal white matter of controls and that the degree of activation increased with age. This microglia activation was more pronounced in the normal-appearing white matter of patients in comparison to controls and increased with disease duration. In contrast to controls, the normal-appearing white matter of patients with multiple sclerosis showed a significant reduction of P2RY12, a marker expressed in homeostatic microglia in rodents, which was completely lost in active and slowly expanding lesions. Early stages of demyelination and neurodegeneration in active lesions contained microglia with a pro-inflammatory phenotype, which expressed molecules involved in phagocytosis, oxidative injury, antigen presentation and T cell co-stimulation. In later stages, the microglia and macrophages in active lesions changed to a phenotype that was intermediate between pro- and anti-inflammatory activation. In inactive lesions, the density of microglia/macrophages was significantly reduced and microglia in part converted to a P2RY12+ phenotype. Analysis of TMEM119, which is expressed on microglia but not on recruited macrophages, demonstrated that on average 45% of the macrophage-like cells in active lesions were derived from the resident microglia pool. Our study demonstrates the loss of the homeostatic microglial signature in active multiple sclerosis with restoration associated with disease inactivity.

Determinants of Mexico-U.S. Outward and Return Migration Flows: A State-Level Panel Data Analysis

Using a unique panel data set of state-to-state outward and return migration flows between Mexico and the United States from 1995 to 2012, this study is the first to analyze Mexico-U.S. migration at the state level and explore simultaneously the effect of economic, environmental, and social factors in Mexico over two decades. Pairing origin and destination states and controlling for a rich structure of fixed effects, we find that income positively impacts migration outflows, especially for Mexican states of origin with a recent migration history and for low-educated migrant flows, suggesting the existence of credit constraints. We find evidence that drought causes more out-migration, while other climatic shocks have no effect. Violence is found to increase out-migration flows from border states and to decrease migration from other Mexican states, especially where violence is directed at migrants. Last, return flows are larger when income growth at destination is lower, consistent with the accumulation of savings as a primary motivation of migrants. Exploring the impact of the crisis, we find evidence of significant changes in the geography of migration flows. Traditional flows are drying up, and new migration corridors are rising, with implications on the composition of the Mexican population in the United States. Although the effect of income on flows in both directions is unchanged by the crisis, the negative effect of violence on out-migration tends to reverse at the end of the period. Overall, this study emphasizes the interest of analyzing disaggregated flows at the infra-country level.

Regional business climate and interstate manufacturing relocation decisions

In this study, we use the National Establishment Time Series (NETS) database to study relocation by manufacturers based on differences in the business climate between the origin and destination states. We model interstate relocations for manufacturers in aggregate and for three subgroups characterized by their industry-level research and development (R&D) intensity. The analysis suggests that very few manufacturing firms relocate across state lines in any given year and the vast majority of those that do are small in size and move to adjoining states. Our results also reveal that interstate migration by manufacturing establishments varies with their R&D intensity. Whereas a number of factors considered in this study are statistically significant, marginal effects at the mean are infinitesimal. This implies that states attempting to encourage manufacturing firms to relocate from other states via traditional perspectives on business climate are unlikely to be successful.

Human Trafficking and Human Smuggling to and from Eastern Sudan: Intended and Unintended Consequences of States’ Policies

This paper argues that irregular migration and human trafficking business are symptoms and consequences of political and legal failures on the part of the origin and host states. The crisis has been created, sustained and enabled by state-imposed human insecurities and highly restrictive border and asylum policies in the countries of origin, transit and destinations. Therefore, any attempt to solely deal with the symptoms including border control and implementation of legal measures to punish irregular migrants and traffickers are more likely to fail and less likely to affect the demand for its service. In an effort to stem the flow and combat human trafficking network, EU States have over-criminalized smugglers and provided financial assistance to oppressive governments in the name of poverty eradication but only to sustain the root causes of migration and trafficking crisis they aspire to tackle. States’ approach to over-criminalize human smugglers is leading to the transformation of smugglers into human traffickers jeopardizing refugees’ lives in the process. This paper explores the nexus between States’ migration policies and the surge of human trafficking business as well as the transformation of smugglers into human traffickers. Drawing from the Eritrean refugee experiences trafficked from Eastern Sudan to Egypt and Israel, this paper aims to shade some light on human trafficking and smuggling networks, and to fill the gaps in knowledge about the victims affected by the process. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2016.v5n1p215

The travel advice as an inhibiting factor of tourist movement

Tourism is significantly affected by unpredictable and uncertain factors such as the occurrence of a terrorist attack, an epidemic outbreak or a natural disaster, etc. The impact of these phenomena on the tourist movement of the country or the place where the event occurred is aggravated by the way it is presented by the media both locally and internationally. The adverse climate gets worse by the issuance of travel advice that usually accompanies such phenomena and has the effect of limiting or even halting tourist flows. In order to identify and study the different types of travel advice that have been issued during international tourism crisis incidents, an internet search was carried out using keywords. Moreover, a study on the travel advice issued by major tourists' origin states, as the USA, Australia, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, etc. was carried out. Incidents (terrorist attacks, epidemics, natural disasters) which had a great impact on tourism were then selected. In addition, the issuance of travel advice, their different issuing authorities, the classification level and the impact on the tourism of the country or the place in question were examined. An analysis of the reaction and the instructions of major international organizations (World Health Organization, World Tourism Organization) concerning the management of such crises, directly or indirectly affecting tourism, were also analyzed. The study of the relevant websites, the international literature and the recorded incidents shows that the issuing of travel advice has negative effects on many sectors of tourism activity and is a bottleneck for tourism development. In fact, in many cases, travel advice is used by countries to exert pressure on other countries in order to achieve a desired result. Due to the enormous economic and social effects when issuing travel advice, the states proper management is necessary in order to minimize the negative consequences and avoid obstructing the free movement of tourists, as provided for in international treaties and declarations. As no systematic research on the impact of travel advice on a country and the degree of influence depending on the issuing entity (state, international organization or private entity) has been carried out so far, further investigation of the issue is suggested, by performing research, both on travelers and travel organizations on the effects of issuing travel advice.

Cause and Consequence of Cross Border Illegal Migration from South Wollo, Ethiopia

Developing countries such as Ethiopia the phenomenon of cross border Illegal migration which is mainly triggered by rural 'push' causes than urban 'pull' causes is the main cause of unbalanced rate of population growth and distribution between urban and rural areas in origin and destination states. This situation in turn affects the healthy development of both urban and rural areas. In spite of this fact, not much in known on many of the recent aspects of illegal migration. The present study of migration from Kutaber is mainly concerned with an assessment of the major causes and consequences of cross border illegal migration of people from rural- urban areas to foreign countries mainly to Gulf States. To achieve the objective 120 household heads were selected randomly from three kebeles of the woreda to Schedule interview. Both primary and secondary data were employed and were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Key informant interview and focus group discussions were prepared to generate information about the cause and consequences of illegal migration from Kutaber Woreda. Some of the causes of illegal migration are: land fragmentation, poverty, drought, need to join friends and relatives, income generation, the search for job and urban amenities, un coordinated activity of legal emigration process, and facilities in desired state are the most important. The study shown that the large family size and small land holding exposed to cross border illegal migration. Many of the migrants encountered problems at the initial period of adjustment and adaptation and even while traveling in night forest and coastal areas. While negative side of illegal migration is moral deterioration, Dept crisis, work load on migrant and remaining family, rejection by their families, and the community as they failed to meet expectations to return with adequate material wealth.

34.: Non-convulsive status epilepticus in the elderly: A review

Altered mental state (AMS) is a common presentation in the elderly to the emergency department. It has been determined that about 16% of patients aged 60 or older with confusion of unknown origin had non-convulsive status epilepticus (NCSE). The diagnosis of NCSE is difficult in the elderly because possible etiologies of confusion could present with the same clinical picture. NCSE in the elderly carries major morbidity and mortality, attributable primarily to the etiology. Treatment of NCSE in the elderly is complex, involving treatment of the etiology and concomitant medical illnesses, whilst balancing the side effects and drug interactions of antiepileptic drugs. A review of the recent literature had been undertaken to look at the studies done on elderly patients with confusion of unknown origin or altered mental states that used an electroencephalogram (EEG) in the workup of these patients, and considered the differential diagnosis of NCSE. At this point, there are many unanswered questions. There needs to be a prospective study to determine the prevalence of NCSE specifically in the elderly patients who present with AMS consecutively. There probably is a need to look at the prevalence of NCSE due to specific etiologies in the elderly. There is a need to identify clinical features in these elderly patients which would predict NCSE with adequate sensitivity and specificity. There is also a need to develop management guidelines on timing, duration and cost effectiveness of emergency EEG in the context of investigating these elderly patients who present with AMS. In an ideal scenario, elderly patients with AMS could have an array of investigations done routinely in the emergency department without delay. NCSE could be picked up on the initial emergent EEG, and together with other neuro-imaging and biochemistry investigations, work out the etiology of the NCSE, and then decide on the appropriate treatment. The treatment plan could be analyzed for risk and benefits with the aid of a decision analysis tool.

Radicalism of the Hopeless: Refugee Flows and Transnational Terrorism

We examine whether refugee flows increase transnational terrorism in states to which refugees flee. Recent studies find that refugee flows contribute to the spread of interstate and civil war, but to a far lesser extent have studies examined how refugee flows could lead to other forms of political violence. We discuss two ways in which refugee flows can lead to transnational terrorism: how conditions in camps contribute to the radicalization of refugees; and how poorly host states treat refugees. We then conduct empirical tests using data on worldwide international refugee flows and transnational terrorism. Specifically, we model the effect of refugee flows on transnational terror attacks within a directed dyad framework to account for characteristics of origin and host states. Using a rare-events logit model, along with count models to check robustness, we find that refugee flows significantly increase the likelihood and counts of transnational terrorist attacks that occur in the host country, even when controlling for other variables. Given the prominence of refugee flows and populations worldwide, the results suggest that states with significant refugee populations and the international community at large should take measures to address the conditions in refugee camps, as well as the treatment of refugees by host states in order to prevent transnational terrorism.

The Caloric Costs of Culture: Evidence From Indian Migrants

Anthropologists have long documented substantial and persistent differences across social groups in the preferences and taboos for particular foods. One natural question to ask is whether such food cultures matter in an economic sense. In particular, can culture constrain caloric intake and contribute to malnutrition? To answer this question, I first document that inter-state migrants within India consume fewer calories per Rupee of food expenditure compared to their non-migrant neighbors, even for households with very low caloric intake. I then form a chain of evidence in support of an explanation based on culture: that migrants make nutritionally-suboptimal food choices due to cultural preferences for the traditional foods of their origin states. First, I focus on the preferences themselves and document that migrants bring their origin-state food preferences with them when they migrate. Second, I link together the findings on caloric intake and preferences by showing that the gap in caloric intake between locals and migrants is related to the suitability and intensity of the migrants' origin-state food preferences: the most adversely affected migrants (households in which both husband and wife migrated to a village where their origin-state preferences are unsuited to the local price vector) would consume 7 percent more calories if they possessed the same preferences as their neighbors.

Informality and Mobility: Evidence from Russian Panel Data

Informality is a defining characteristic of labor markets in developing and transition countries. This paper analyzes patterns of mobility across different forms of formal and informal employment in Russia. Using the RLMS household panel we estimate a dynamic multinomial logit model with individual heterogeneity and correct for the initial conditions problem. Simulations show that structural state dependence is weak and that transition rates from informal to formal employment are not lower than from other origin states. These results lend support to the integrated view of the labor market.

A cellular star atlas: using astrocytes from human pluripotent stem cells for disease studies

What roles do astrocytes play in human disease?This question remains unanswered for nearly every human neurological disorder. Yet, because of their abundance and complexity astrocytes can impact neurological function in many ways. The differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into neuronal and glial subtypes, including astrocytes, is becoming routine, thus their use as tools for modeling neurodevelopment and disease will provide one important approach to answer this question. When designing experiments, careful consideration must be given to choosing paradigms for differentiation, maturation, and functional analysis of these temporally asynchronous cellular populations in culture. In the case of astrocytes, they display heterogeneous characteristics depending upon species of origin, brain region, developmental stage, environmental factors, and disease states, all of which may render experimental results highly variable. In this review, challenges and future directions are discussed for using hPSC-derived astroglial progenitors and mature astrocytes for neurodevelopmental studies with a focus on exploring human astrocyte effects upon neuronal function. As new technologies emerge to measure the functions of astrocytes in vitro and in vivo, there is also a need for a standardized source of human astrocytes that are most relevant to the diseases of interest.

Human trafficking and migration control policy: vicious or virtuous cycle?

AbstractThis paper examines the relationship between states’ migration control policies and human trafficking in origin, transit and destination states. Using cross-sectional data on states’ visa policies for 192 states and indicators for human trafficking from the Global Patterns report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the paper analyses feedback mechanisms between policies and trafficking. The empirical evidence suggests that, contrary to the pessimistic predictions of policy scholarship, the feedback is characterised by a virtuous mechanism. Firstly, the results show that, in line with expectations of security studies, states tighten visa policies in response to trafficking threats. Origin and transit states face a greater number of restrictions on travel. Similarly, destination states of trafficking impose tighter controls. Secondly, visa restrictions against origin and transit countries mitigate trafficking from and through these states. Finally, the paper demonstrates that the vicious effect whereby stricter policies exacerbate trafficking pertains mostly to destination states’ visa policies and to visas imposed at borders.

Voting with Their Feet? Local Economic Conditions and Migration Patterns in New England

Over the past several years, policymakers and business leaders throughout New England have expressed concern regarding the region’s ability to attract and retain skilled workers, given the economic climate of the region compared with other parts of the nation. Indeed, net domestic migration for New England became increasingly negative after the 2001 recession, as the number of people leaving the region exceeded those entering. Examining the factors underlying these migration trends is important for determining what role, if any, public policy might play in addressing their potential impact on the region’s labor supply. Using a logistic migration model, this paper examines the relative role of economic factors — namely labor market conditions, per capita incomes, and housing affordability — in determining domestic state-to-state migration flows. Using such flows from the Internal Revenue Service for each of the 48 states in the continental United States from 1977 through 2006, the model controls for demographic characteristics of origin states as well as state-specific fixed amenities, such as climate, culture, and natural features. The model’s estimates show that while all three measures of relative economic conditions are significant determinants of migration, the magnitude of their impact varies. The estimates also show that the impact of these economic factors on state-to-state migration flows has changed considerably over time. For example, the importance of per capita income as a determining factor has fallen considerably since the late 1970s, while that of housing affordability has risen. Forecasts of net domestic migration based on the model show that while New England will continue to lose individuals to other states during 2009, the pace of out-migration will likely slow, particularly in Massachusetts. This is likely due to the fact that both the region and the Bay State are performing slightly better than the nation as a whole during the current recession. However, this trend may reverse itself if economic conditions deteriorate in the New England states relative to other parts of the country.

Dendritic cells and their role in tumor immunosurveillance

Dendritic cells (DCs) comprise a heterogeneous population of cells that play a key role in initiating, directing and regulating adaptive immune responses, including those critically involved in tumor immunosurveillance. As a riposte to the central role of DCs in the generation of antitumor immune responses, tumors have developed various mechanisms which impair the immunostimulatory functions of DCs or even instruct them to actively contribute to tumor growth and progression. In the first part of this review we discuss general aspects of DC biology, including their origin, subtypes, immature and mature states, and functional plasticity which ensures a delicate balance between active immune response and immune tolerance. In the second part of the review we discuss the complex interactions between DCs and the tumor microenvironment, and point out the challenges faced by DCs during the recognition of tumor Ags. We also discuss the role of DCs in tumor angiogenesis and vasculogenesis.