Orientalist Views Research Articles

Research on Tropical Medicine and Germ Theory in Colonial Hong Kong: Focusing on Malaria and Plague Prevention.

At the end of the nineteenth century, Hong Kong was in the midst of a malaria and plague epidemic which caused a fierce dispute within the medical community over disease theories and quarantine practices. However, the Hong Kong colonial authorities and medical community did not immediately accept the theory of etiology based on germ theory. Although germ theory was becoming scientifically established through research on plague and malaria in the 1890s, the Hong Kong colonial authorities and medical community did not immediately accept it. Patrick Manson (1844-1922) began studying tropical medicine based on germ theory by studying elephantiasis and malaria in Amoi and Hong Kong during the 1880s. However, he was unable to strongly advocate for a quarantine policy based on germ theory because the exact transmission routes of these diseases were not yet fully understood. Although the scientific community began to shift towards germ theory after the discovery of causative bacteria for diseases like malaria and plague in the 1880s and 1890s, many medical and colonial health officials in Hong Kong still held on to the quarantine policy based on miasma theory. However, a series of infectious diseases and destructive miasma theory-based quarantine measures were pushing Hong Kong society into chaos, and the existing quarantine measures was no longer sustainable. In the twentieth century, colonial authorities and medical community in Hong Kong adopted tropical medicine and quarantine measures based on germ theory as their prominent position. Despite the establishment of tropical disease theory based on germ theory, racial perceptions of disease did not change significantly. Instead, the theory of tropical medicine reinforced orientalist views of disease.

The Development of Video Game Representations of the Middle East

This article critically explores the historical representation of the Middle East in video games until 2002 and following the 9/11 event. Using thematic analysis, we identify four main themes and discuss how this representation shifts with time, offering a brief overview of the broader context. I argue that there is a clear association between political developments and this western representation, for we can clearly observe changes from the romantic, exotic, and orientalist views of the region and Arab and Muslim figure shown within the realms of the Arabian Nights theme to a more militant figure and dangerous place due to featuring armed conflict in the Middle East such as the first Gulf War. Though not included in the discussion, 9/11 introduced a more negative and Islamophobic representation that is associated with Islamist terrorism, and it marks the latest development in these themes.

Khlebnikov in China

The question of how Velimir Khlebnikov’s work was perceived in China is among the little studied ones. We have a definite idea of the forms the Chinese theme took in Khlebnikov’s philosophical and aesthetic consciousness as a part of the general orientalist views of the Russian futurist poet. At the same time, the problem of the actual Chinese development of V. Khlebnikov’s artistic heritage (the dialogue among cultures presupposes their two-way connection, interlacement of assessments and judgments) remains open. Thus, the article highlights the most relevant literary and translation aspects of V. Khlebnikov’s reception by the Chinese.These two aspects of research are traditionally closely related, regardless of national culture issues. The measure and depth of literary interest in foreign-language poetry is determined by the volume of translated texts; in a similar degree, the stability and quality of translation corresponds to the literary vector of the foreign word perception. For the Russian research into Far Eastern literature, this state of affairs is quite axiomatic (since without a preliminary theoretical and historical-literary, as well as hermeneutic analyses, it is impossible to truly understand the poetics of ancient Chinese or medieval Japanese lyrical poetry; all other approaches will be considered amateurish with good reason, which, however, does not exclude the presence of a special, “naïve” charm of these translations from Chinese or Japanese, taken in isolation from the original). The above thesis is also applicable to the Chinese research into Russian literature (Chinese studies of Russian literature), which has been intensively developing in recent years.The article traces the stages in scientific and philological studies of V. Khlebnikov’s work in China, explains the reasons for Chinese interest in the Silver Age in general and the work of the author of the “Khadzhi Tarkhan” in particular, analyzes the strategies of individual translations of Khlebnikov’s poems into Chinese, taking into account the increased complexity in the transmission of “zaum'” by means of the linguistic system so strikingly different in its internal structure and writing system from Russian.

The Islamic Cultural Heritage as a “Problem”: Is Arab Political Science Culturalist?

The study of political culture in the Arab world presents us with a paradox: albeit cultural explanations of Arab politics by Western scholars (e.g., Huntington 1993) have been widely criticized from within the region as latter-day Orientalist views, the cultural approach remains one of the leading analytical approaches employed in Arab social sciences. Central to this tradition is the idea that Arab societies have specific cultural characteristics that contribute to, or are the cause of, the region’s general “backwardness,” especially politically. Collectively known as critics of al-turāth (cultural heritage), this school of thought sparked important scholarly debates in Arab academic circles. This paper reflects on these debates, mainly focusing on how Arab political science, broadly defined, has considered the role of culture as a potential explanatory variable for the endurance of authoritarianism in the Arab world and the failure of democratic transitions. Several influential Arab intellectuals adopt the cultural approach, but they do not necessarily define culture in static, primordial, or fixed terms. If Arab political culture is deemed problematic, it can still be changed. For this academic tradition, the “critical intellectual” is a central agent for any sociocultural and political change.

Internal orientalism on Taiwan: the ROC's Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission and its portrayal of Tibetan Buddhism

ABSTRACT Tibetan Buddhism has played a shifting role in the official identity discourse of the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan. Established for the administration of Tibet, Mongolia, and other frontier regions in 1928, the ROC's Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission (MTAC) continued research and publication activity on Taiwan (1949–2017). A major focus of this work was Tibetan Buddhism. This article examines how MTAC portrayals of Tibetan Buddhism evolved in response to changes in the ROC's legitimating ideology and to Taiwan's shifting political and cultural context. During the martial law era (1949–1987), Tibetan Buddhism was largely portrayed as an exotic religion facing brutal Communist oppression. By the twenty-first century, the MTAC was repositioning itself as a supporter of Tibetan Buddhism within Taiwan. MTAC discourse on Tibetan Buddhism reflects both the growing detachment of ROC politics from Mainland affairs and the persistence of Orientalist views of Tibetans and their culture.

The Criticism of Orientalist Views in Terms of Islamic-Turkish Encyclopedia

Oryantalistler İslam dini hakkında birçok araştırma yapmış ve bunların neticesinde fikirlerini ortaya koymuştur. Oryantalistlerin İslam dini hakkında fikirlerini bir araya getiren ve ülkemizde de Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı tarafından tercüme edilmesi sağlanarak yayınlanan İslam Ansiklopedisi bu çalışmaların en başta gelenlerinden biri olmuştur. Bu eser içerisinde yer alan oryantalistlerin iddialarına İslam dünyasının farklı kesimlerinden itirazlar yöneltilmiştir. Ülkemizde yayınlanan ancak sadece iki cildi basılan İslâm-Türk Ansiklopedisi de bu itirazların dile getirildiği yayınlardan biridir. İslâm-Türk Ansiklopedisi içerisinde yer alan bazı maddelerde, maddenin en sonunda oryantalistlerin iddialarına cevap vermek amacıyla ayrı bir başlık açılmış, burada oryantalistlerin iddiaları ve bunlara verilen cevaplara yer verilmiştir. İslâm-Türk Ansiklopedisi içerisinde oryantalistlerin hangi iddialarına ne şekilde cevap verildiği bu çalışmanın temel konusudur. İslâm-Türk Ansiklopedisi içerisinde oryantalistlere cevapların olduğu tespit edilen beş madde, oryantalistlerin iddiaları ve ansiklopedide yer alan cevaplar ile birlikte değerlendirilmektedir. Bu iddialar ve cevapların ilk defa bilimsel açıdan değerlendirilmesi çalışmamızı önemli kılmaktadır. Ayrıca bu hususun yanında iddia ve cevaplarda kullanılan dilin bilimsel ve ahlaki açıdan incelenmesi de çalışmamızın bir diğer konusu olmuştur.

Persian orientalism: Raciolinguistic ideologies and the construction of ‘Iranianness’

AbstractThis article excavates the Eurocentric roots of Iranian nationalist discourse, which emerged from the political and intellectual trajectories of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Premised on the epistemic privilege of the Persian language, a selective remembrance of the past, and forging an internal Other, I contend that this raciolinguistic ideology equated Persianness with Iranianness and naturalised Persian as both a language and a race. I begin by tracing the origin of Iranianness or Irāniyat: a concept coined by Mirza Fath'Ali Akhundzadeh and Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, two influential figures in late Qajar Iran, whose writings introduced and disseminated the Eurocentric and Orientalist view of the non‐Persian Other. In the second section, I examine how the Berlin Circle, a group of Iranian nationalist intellectuals in the early 20th century, elaborated these ideas into a coherent racial and political ideology that later informed the Pahlavis' state‐building project in 1925. The last section of the article engages with the recent neologism of the ‘Persianate World’, an intellectual enterprise imbued with an Orientalist predisposition that aims to inscribe a trans‐border and transcultural quality to Persian culture far beyond its current boundaries, encompassing Eurasia and Central Asia.

Exploring Asian Religions in Europe: An Introduction

Abstract In the last fifty years there has been an increasing interest in alternative “spiritualities” in the European context, which have crystallised to a significant extent around “Eastern” religious forms. Whereas an important impulse has certainly been given in this respect by Orientalist views, the role played by missionaries in the transmission of Asian religious forms to Europe has been equally important. Still another major factor behind the transmission of “Eastern” religions to Europe is migration, which is becoming more and more relevant with the increasing number of immigrants from Asian countries. Against this general framework, the articles collected in this special issue attempt to shed more light on selected aspects of Asian religions in the European context, with particular attention to institutional, semi-institutional, and more informal practices, still relatively understudied areas (e.g., parts of Eastern Europe), and broad historical developments.

Kontribusi Kitab Al-Mu’jam Al-Mufahras Karya Arent Jan Wensinck Terhadap Ilmu Takhrijul Hadis

Hadith is indeed the main source of teachings upheld by Muslims. Its existence has existed since the time of the Prophet Saw and supported the development of Islam, until finally all criticisms of the hadith of the Prophet Saw appeared after the death of the Prophet Saw. Orientalists have always been judged badly by many hadith scholars because they judge hadith only with one side, but in fact there are several orientalists who contribute to the process of developing hadith, namely the science of takhrij hadith. The development of takhrijul hadith itself developed rapidly among scholars. It's just that the initial support in this takhrij process uses one of the books of orientalist work to date. This article aims to explain orientalist views on hadith along with academic honesty and study of the book of takhrij by orientalists. This research uses a descriptive method with a qualitative approach. The result of this study is that the role of orientalists in the development of hadith and the science of takhrijul hadith is true. In fact, it is very useful for the study of subsequent hadith, in this study also saw his academic honesty in writing works about Islam, especially hadith.

Paradigm of religious dialogue, Mediterranean period of interfaith studies

Paper is a kind of historical sociology of religions for philosophical understanding of Al- Muhyiddin Arabi's research as a lasting paradigm in dialogue of religions. Mediterranean is place where greatest number of God's prophets were sent, and voice of prophecy of many prophets from Adam to Khatam can still be heard in that space. AL-Muhyiddin Arabi (1240), who started classical studies of religions, originated from Western Mediterranean and presented his works in eastern Mediterranean. His research has come as a paradigm that governs understanding of religions in their common subject, nature of prophets. Discussion of religions dialogue, in modern era, it is basically a question of oriental studies. Which Orientalism put it in two paradigms of Crusades and global unity of religions? Hypothesis of research is that dialogue between religions is an anthropological debate and is close to natural requirements of man. And good orientalist views are close to it. Discussion in paradigm of religions has a pattern of combination of philosophy and sociology, its origin is beyond science of religions. Dialogue of religions has a philosophical ontology in field of human existence and is a logical paradigm. There is a linear and circle approach to human history and in every attitude to history, religious dialogue, has a physical existence. Field of this philosophical opinion is anthropological process in history of sociology. In process of anthropology, there are at beginning of creation homogeneous group of people, without grounds of separation, and societies were homogeneous, and uniformity was their only characteristic, but societies also have secondary characteristics, which is essential necessity of change. And prophets who organize changes. Therefore, dialogue between religions has an existential place in societies, like reason for their existence, and it is a part of anthropology, and it has been investigated in combined science of philosophy and sociology in this research, and it shows that constant existence of dialogue between religions always has its own suitable contexts and has its own suitable contexts and discussion of religious dialogue in context of political issues is belonging complications of opposites orientalism circles, and in positive orientalism, attention is paid to ontological aspect of relationship between religions, and discussion of religions in this orientalism is closer to principle of ontology of religions, because religions are naturally for order. And the multiplicity of societies have arisen and their existence is rooted in people whose existential roots are of a uniform nature, and multitude of societies goes back to unity between people that existed in beginning because unit of society is Human(Nas). But according to historical Arrangement, in any way there are many societies.

Nasikh dan Mansukh dalam Al-Qur’an

The Qur'an as a guide of Muslims has a fairly high concern by scholars. There are views that some verses in the Qur'an are contradictory, so that this leads to the study of nasikh-mansukh. The study is not necessarily accepted by all scholars or observers of Qur'anic science, because according to them there can be no revision in the Qur'an. This research tries to discuss nasikh-mansukh studies both related to understanding, differences of opinion, orientalist views to the wisdom of studying them using qualitative methods from library data. This study found that differences of opinion in the scholarly environment occurred due to differences in the roots of their studies. With the nasikh-mansukh theory one can understand why there are verses that textually seem contradictory.

Pandangan R.O. Winstedt mengenai perwarisan harta di Tanah Melayu perbandingan keatas Undang-Undang Islam dan Adat Pepatih

R.O. Winstedt was an orientalist who served in Malaya as a British administrator. His viewpoint is based on the philosophy of logical-empirical positivism, which is an understanding that fully emphasizes the use of common sense as the primary approach to obtaining a scientific fact based on systematic and thorough research methods. This philosophy rejects the proof of a fact using revelation sources because it is considered irrelevant in historical evidence. This article focuses on analyzing Winstedt's views on property inheritance in Malaya by making a comparison between Islamic law and Perpatih Custom. In addition, the observation aims to identify the orientalist's approach to evaluating Islam and the Malay community. The author uses historical, comparative, and content analysis methods to analyze the views. The results of the study found that Winstedt's orientalist approach to evaluating Islam, especially the legal system, showed a dubious point of view and biased judgment. In the issue of property inheritance, Winstedt believes that Islamic law and custom do not work conjointly because in the orientalist view, the Islamic system is not suitable to be practiced in Malaya due to differences in culture and place of residence. This is caused by the orientalists' incomprehension of Islamic law due to their Eurocentrism worldview. This thinking favors the European nation as a great and civilized nation over non-western nations to the point of being called "ambassador of civilization," which is the savior of nations that need to be civilized.

Pandangan R.O. Winstedt mengenai perwarisan harta di Tanah Melayu perbandingan keatas Undang-Undang Islam dan Adat Pepatih

R.O. Winstedt was an orientalist who served in Malaya as a British administrator. His viewpoint is based on the philosophy of logical-empirical positivism, which is an understanding that fully emphasizes the use of common sense as the primary approach to obtaining a scientific fact based on systematic and thorough research methods. This philosophy rejects the proof of a fact using revelation sources because it is considered irrelevant in historical evidence. This article focuses on analyzing Winstedt's views on property inheritance in Malaya by making a comparison between Islamic law and Perpatih Custom. In addition, the observation aims to identify the orientalist's approach to evaluating Islam and the Malay community. The author uses historical, comparative, and content analysis methods to analyze the views. The results of the study found that Winstedt's orientalist approach to evaluating Islam, especially the legal system, showed a dubious point of view and biased judgment. In the issue of property inheritance, Winstedt believes that Islamic law and custom do not work conjointly because in the orientalist view, the Islamic system is not suitable to be practiced in Malaya due to differences in culture and place of residence. This is caused by the orientalists' incomprehension of Islamic law due to their Eurocentrism worldview. This thinking favors the European nation as a great and civilized nation over non-western nations to the point of being called "ambassador of civilization," which is the savior of nations that need to be civilized.

Pilgrimage, Precarity, and Pandemics

Pilgrimage, Precarity, and Pandemics

Kritik Orientalis dalam Aspek Ontologis Studi Al-Qur’an

This article analyzes the Orientalists who study the Qur'an, they are Abraham Geiger, Theodore Noldeke, William Muir, and John Wansbrough. This research uses descriptive analysis methods to find out how Orientalists view and think about the Qur'an. The main data is collected from books related to Orientalist thought as well as from scientific journals. The results found several Orientalist views of the Qur'an in the ontological aspect. Geiger argues that the Qur'an is influenced by Judaism which includes: various stories in the Qur’an, morals, and laws, about life, language, and faith. The Prophet Muhammad took a lot of Jewish cultures and integrated them into Islam. Meanwhile, Noldeke alleged that the Qur'an was composed by the Prophet Muhammad and that many of its contents were plagiarized from the Bible. His criticism of the Qur'an can be summarized in two points. First, he stated that the meaning of the ummiy of Rasulullah was not unable to read and write, but the opposite of ahl kitab. Second, according to him, the Qur'an is not a revelation. Muir attempted to rearrange the chronology of the Qur'an from a historical perspective and initiated a chronological theory. Meanwhile, John considers the Qur'an not as a holy book but as a collection of notes on the prophetic concepts of the Arab nation and aims to elevate the status of the Arab nation.

The Collapse of Self-Seduction and Colonial Mimicry: An Analysis of the Film M. Butterfly Compared to Its Earlier Versions

Through an in-depth analysis of the main characters and their relationship inDavid Cronenberg’s film M. Butterfly compared mainly to those in John LutherLong’s short story “Madame Butterfly,” this paper affords us a renewedunderstanding of the Orientalist hierarchy between the West and the East.The paper argues that, by constructing the multilayered identities of andcomplicated relationship between the main characters, René Gallimard andSong Liling, who cross the gendered and racially defined boundaries, thefilm deals critically with the Orientalist view of the West toward an Easternfeminine love, in which a beautiful, submissive Eastern woman is selflesslydevoted to a Western man. Using the ideas of self-seduction,self-deception, colonial mimicry, the Third Space, etc., the paper also pointsout the limitations of their crossing of the boundaries. That is, Gallimardcontinues blindly fantasizing about Oriental femininity to the end of the filmand Song’s deception and manipulation of Gallimard and his threats toGallimard’s superior position do not allow him to form a mutual partnershipwith Gallimard.

Reflections of the Abolition of the Sultanate and the Caliphate in the Spanish Press

Türkiye’de imparatorluktan ulus-devlete geçiş sürecinin önemli iki gelişmesi; 1 Kasım 1922 tarihinde saltanatın ve 3 Mart 1924’te hilafetin kaldırılması, tüm dünyada olduğu gibi İspanya basınının da ilgisini çekmiştir. Gazeteler, bu kurumların tarihsel arka planını vermiş, saltanatın kaldırılmasıyla hilafetin kazandığı yeni konumu betimlemeye çalışmıştır. Egemenliğin TBMM tarafından kullanıldığı, dini gücün ise yine Meclis tarafından seçilmiş bir halife tarafından temsil edildiği bu yeni durum, basın tarafından İslami gelenekler ve Türkiye’nin Müslüman dünyasına yönelik politikaları bağlamında değerlendirilmiştir. Hilafetin kaldırılması ve son Halife Abdülmecid Efendi’nin sürgüne gönderilmesinin ardından tekrar gündeme yerleşen konu, İslam dünyasında yaratacağı dini-siyasi tepkiler, Müslüman sömürgeleri nedeniyle İngiltere ve Fransa siyasetine etkileri ve yeni Türk Devleti’nin devrimleri çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır. İspanya basınının konuya yaklaşımı, gazetelerin siyasi duruşlarına göre farklılık göstermişse de hilafetin kaldırılmasına dair nihai değerlendirmesi, evrensel siyasi bir güç olarak Panislamizm’in sonlanması olmuştur. Hilafetin kaldırılmasına dair haber ve köşe yazıları İspanya kamuoyunun, Türkiye nezdinde Doğulu-Müslüman dünyasına dair oryantalist bakışını yansıtmıştır.

Islamic Tenets and Values in Laila Lalami’s The Other Americans

After 9/11, the stereotypes and generalizations against Muslims are exacerbated. By examining Lalami’s The Other Americans, this paper aims to challenge the prejudice and orientalist perceptions towards Muslims and US-Muslims through the aesthetic strategies that the author uses: Islamic tenets and values. The method used for this analysis is a Critical Textual Analysis and engages with Postcolonial Studies, particularly Edward Said's concept of the Othering. The analysis found that prejudicial perception is a challenge through Islamic tenets such as the practice of Qur'an recital and fasting (sawm) which promotes Islam as consolation and peace. The novel also challenges the image of savagery and backwardness in the orientalist views through Islamic values that reflect the qualities of the Prophet Muhammad by depicting the values of perseverance (istiqamah), compassion, and innovation through embracing entrepreneurship. The findings reveal that the prejudiced views of Islam that are maintained by insularity and ignorance are countered by the Islamic tenets and values that are promoted in Islam and practiced by its believers. Thus, Lalami’s novel undermines anti-Muslim racism by exploring Islamic tenets and values, including the Quran and hadiths, practiced by Lalami’s characters who have suffered from the exclusion of U.S. belonging for centuries.

شعرية القصيدة العربية الجاهلية في عيون المستشرقين: ريناتة ياكوبي أنموذجا

Jāhiliyya poetry in Arabic literature has always been a major focus of interest for researchers in this field. Historically considered, this period also includes the first century of Islam. Modern-day interest in Arabic literature, particularly in Jāhiliyya poetry, seems to have arisen from religious reasons on the one hand, and from the consciousness of national history on the other. During the Jāhiliyya Period, the Arabs attached so much importance to poetry that it functioned as their council, history, culture and worldview. Arabic poetry reached the peak of its maturity during the Jāhiliyya Period and formed an indisputable model for all subsequent times.
 Arab literary critics have substantially contributed to the art of criticism and have produced seminal works. Particularly studies on poetry criticism have deservedly earned a special position in literary appraisal. In this field, orientalists have also carried out many studies on old Arabic poetry. However, they have failed to act prudently in these studies and made methodological mistakes, such as comparing Arabic poetry with European literature. Despite these biased and non-objective studies, there are also some approaches in which there is no prejudice against and disregard for Arabic poetry. One of these conscientious works belongs to the German orientalist Renate Jacobi. Jacobi and Ukrainian orientalist Susan Stetkevich carried out similar studies in this area; both researchers addressed the ancient Arabic poetry in integrity. Using this method, they went beyond the traditional approaches of orientalism and examined Arabic literature from technical and literary perspectives beyond the social and geographical properties and cultures of the Arabs.
 Globally considered, we can say that German orientalists studying pre-Islamic poetry are more prudent and impartial than their European counterparts. Jacobi developed a unique critical horizon and a methodological path by examining texts without looking at the external contexts accompanying them. Jacobi introduced a new method in her work titled 'the Formal Principles of Arabic Poetry', by classifying the structural properties of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry into sections. She also suggested that this poetry is regular and interconnected and that it hardly exists in a disconnected structure depending solely on couplets. Therefore, this work of Jacobi has changed the prejudiced view of Arabic poetry. She reformed the traditional orientalist view, which considered the ancient Greek literary taste as a benchmark and studied Arabic poetry accordingly, and evaluated the Arab culture according to its own resources and cultural norms. Therefore, with this work, she approached Arabic literature from a different perspective than other orientalists.
 The most important thing Jacobi did in her work on the structure of pre-Islamic poetry was to try to answer a conjectural question that sought to uncover the structure and form of the text. The basic question she explored was: How was the structure of pre-Islamic poetry? To answer this question, Jacobi examined pre-Islamic poems in terms of their styles. She also analyzed the text and evaluated its structure, language, style and internal relations. After examining the elaborate structures of Arabic poetry, Jacobi showed that Arabic poetry is based on description, and it moves from ghazal to encomium. These claims made by Jacobi were previously voiced by such critics as Ibn Sallām and Ibn Kutayba. However, Jacobi’s changing the orientalist view, along with her serious and objective presentation, reveals the importance of her work.

Arabic Christianity between the Ottoman Levant and Eastern Europe

Arabic Christianity between the Ottoman Levant and Eastern Europe