Organization For Economic Cooperation Research Articles

Digital Progression and Economic Growth: Analyzing the Impact of ICT Advancements on the GDP of European Union Countries

This research thoroughly examines the dynamic relationship between the European Union’s economic growth and rapid advancements in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Specifically, it assesses how certain ICT indicators are associated with significant economic growth. Utilizing an extensive dataset from the Digital Economy and Society Index 2022 (DESI), the Statistical Office of the European Union (EUROSTAT), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), this study encompasses data from all 27 European Union member states. Employing structural equation modelling, our analysis illustrates the positive correlation between ICT development and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) index. Our findings highlight the critical role of swiftly evolving technological landscapes, emphasizing the growing influence of new Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies in business sectors. Furthermore, this study showcases the need to enhance human capital and expedite the growth of e-government technologies. These advancements are pivotal in strengthening the infrastructure supporting citizens and public enterprises across European countries, thereby contributing to their economic vitality.

Does the healthcare decentralization provide better public health security capacity and health services satisfaction? An analysis of OECD countries

PurposeDecentralization has profound implications for many health systems. This study investigates the effect of health system decentralization in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries on public health security capacity and health service satisfaction.Design/methodology/approachMultiple linear regression analyses were employed for variables related to the level of health security capacity and satisfaction with the healthcare system while controlling for all socio-demographic variables from the European Social Survey, including over 44,000 respondents from 25 OECD countries. The Health Systems in Transition series of countries were used for assessing the decentralization level.FindingsThe result of multiple linear regression analyses showed that the level of decentralization in health systems was significantly associated with higher health security capacity (ß-coefficient 3.722, 95% confidence interval (CI) [3.536 3.908]; p=<0.001) and health service satisfaction (ß-coefficient 1.463, 95% CI [1.389 1.536]; p=<0.001) in the study. Countries with a higher level of decentralization in health policy tasks and areas were significantly likely to have higher health services satisfaction, whereas this satisfaction had a significant negative relation with the lower level of decentralization status of secondary/tertiary care services in OECD countries (ß-coefficient −5.250, 95% CI [−5.757–4.743]; p = 0.001).Originality/valueThis study contributes to a better understanding of the extent to which decentralization of health services affects public health safety capacity and satisfaction with health services, whereas the level of decentralization in OECD countries varies considerably. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of public health security and satisfaction with health care delivery in assessing the effects of decentralization in health services.

Limited impact of hydrogen co-firing on prolonging fossil-based power generation under low emissions scenarios

Climate change mitigation generally require rapid decarbonization in the power sector, including phase-out of fossil fuel-fired generators. Given recent technological developments, co-firing of hydrogen or ammonia, could help decarbonize fossil-based generators, but little is known about how its effects would play out globally. Here, we explore this topic using an energy system model. The results indicate that hydrogen co-firing occurs solely in stringent mitigation like 1.5 °C scenarios, where around half of existing coal and gas power capacity can be retrofitted for hydrogen co-firing, reducing stranded capacity, mainly in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and Asia. However, electricity supply from co-firing generators is limited to about 1% of total electricity generation, because hydrogen co-firing is mainly used as a backup option to balance the variable renewable energies. The incremental fuel cost of hydrogen results in lower capacity factor of hydrogen co-fired generators, whereas low-carbon hydrogen contributes to reducing emission cost associated with carbon pricing. While hydrogen co-firing may play a role in balancing intermittency of variable renewable energies, it will not seriously delay the phase-out of fossil-based generators.

Article: Anti-Avoidance Jurisprudence in Direct Taxation: The CJEU Between Politics and Certainty

Over a span of several years, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) developed a framework for anti-abuse in the context of European law and particularly established criteria for justifying restrictions on the fundamental freedoms in the tax context. In tax cases on anti-avoidance that are more recent, however, the court has demonstrated a notable change in its stance towards this issue that represents a disruption in the consistent development of its jurisprudence on abuse. While the court covers the contradictions in its case law by passing an impression of continuity between disparate decisions, it is remarkable how recent rulings draw from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) language. This reliance on concepts from a non-EU institution, however, leads to legitimacy concerns. The increasing importance of international organizations and public opinion – for example, in reaction to the Panama Papers – in shaping the international tax landscape is undeniable. While high-profile projects like Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) and Global Anti-Base Erosion (GloBE) highlight international tax issues, they also exert political pressure on judicial bodies such as the CJEU which leads to less methodological decisions that will align the court with political interests. In this context, the CJEU’s acting as a political player at the borderline of its competences is to be viewed critically, especially regarding the recent shift in its case law on abuse and tax avoidance that leads to concerns over legal certainty. Anti-abuse principle, anti-avoidance jurisprudence, CJEU, international organizations, international taxation, legal certainty, legitimacy, political influence

Development of tax administration in the Russian Federation in the context of digital transformation

The digital transformation of business and the public sector has had a significant impact on business activities. New types of business have emerged, mainly carried out in the digital space. In addition, new means of payment have emerged: cryptocurrencies and digital financial assets. These facts are shocks to tax administration models created to interact with taxpayers engaged in traditional activities. In this regard, in 2020, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) at the XIII plenary meeting of the Forum on Tax Administration proposed the concept of digital transformation of tax administration “Tax Administration 3.0: Digital transformation of tax administration.” Taking into account the noted factors, the article provides a theoretical analysis of the risks caused by digital transformation for the purposes of tax administration, and also considers the best practices for leveling risks, including through the digitalization of tax administration. The subject of the study is the digital transformation of tax administration in the Russian Federation. The purpose of the study is to develop proposals for the development of tax administration in the Russian Federation, taking into account the best global practices, as well as using advanced technologies of the digital economy. As part of the study, the following research methods were used: retrospective analysis, synthesis, comparison and forecasting. The article provides a general analysis of the phenomenon of digital transformation and the associated risks for the purposes of tax administration; OECD proposals for the digital transformation of tax administration were reviewed, including their advantages and disadvantages; actual approaches to the transformation of the tax administration model used in the Russian Federation are noted. The scientific novelty of the work is expressed in the proposed further directions for the development of tax administration in the Russian Federation, including: the development of electronic document management; expanding the use of Blockchain technology; using the capabilities of smart contracts to automate the process of calculating and paying taxes. The solutions proposed in the study can be used in the practical implementation of measures to develop tax administration in the Russian Federation.

Environmental impact of PFAS: Filling data gaps using theoretical quantum chemistry and QSPR modeling

Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), known for their widespread environmental presence and slow degradation, pose significant concerns. Of the approximately 10,000 known PFAS, only a few have undergone comprehensive testing, resulting in limited experimental data. In this study, we employed a combination of physics-based methods and data-driven models to address gaps in PFAS bioaccumulation potential. Using the COnductor-like Screening MOdel for Realistic Solvents (COSMO-RS) method, we predicted n-octanol/water partition coefficients (logKOW), crucial for PFAS bioaccumulation. Our developed Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR) model exhibited high accuracy (R2 = 0.95, RMSEC = 0.75) and strong predictive ability (Q2LOO = 0.93, RMSECV = 0.83). Leveraging the extensive NORMAN, we predicted logKOW for over 4,000 compounds, identifying 244 outliers out of 4519. Further categorizing the database into eight Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) categories, we confirmed fluorine atoms role in enhanced bioaccumulation. Utilizing predicted logKOW, water solubility logSW, and vapor pressure logVP values, we calculated additional physicochemical properties that are responsible for the transport and dispersion of PFAS in the environment. Parameters such as Henry’s Law (kH), air–water partition coefficient (KAW), octanol–air coefficient (KOA), and soil adsorption coefficient (KOC) exhibited favorable correlations with literature data (R2 > 0.66). Our study successfully filled data gaps, contributing to the understanding of ubiquitous PFAS in the environment and estimating missing physicochemical data for these compounds.

Within-laboratory reproducibility of Ames test results: Are repeat tests necessary?

The Ames test is required by regulatory agencies worldwide for assessing the mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of chemical compounds. This test uses several strains of bacteria to evaluate mutation induction: positive results in the assay are predictive of rodent carcinogenicity. As an initial step to understanding how well the assay may detect mutagens present as constituents of complex mixtures such as botanical extracts, a cross-sector working group examined the within-laboratory reproducibility of the Ames test using the extensive, publicly available National Toxicology Program (NTP) Ames test database comprising more than 3000 distinct test articles, most of which are individual chemicals. This study focused primarily on NTP tests conducted using the standard Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Test Guideline 471 preincubation test protocol with 10% rat liver S9 for metabolic activation, although 30% rat S9 and 10 and 30% hamster liver S9 were also evaluated. The reproducibility of initial negative responses in all strains with and without 10% S9, was quite high, ranging from 95% to 99% with few exceptions. The within-laboratory reproducibility of initial positive responses for strains TA98 and TA100 with and without 10% rat liver S9 was ≥90%. Similar results were seen with hamster S9. As expected, the reproducibility of initial equivocal responses was lower, <50%. These results will provide context for determining the optimal design of recommended test protocols for use in screening both individual chemicals and complex mixtures, including botanicals.

Persistence of human capital development in OECD countries over 150 years: Evidence from linear and nonlinear fractional integration methods

The goal of this study is to examine the persistence of human capital development in 21 member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development for the period 1870–2019. Gross enrollment rates for secondary and tertiary education are both used as proxies for human capital development. Employing linear and nonlinear fractional integration approaches, our results suggest high degrees of persistence in the series under examination. However, lower orders of integration are observed in the data for tertiary education than for secondary education. Thus, no evidence of reversion to the mean is found in secondary education, and Australia and New Zealand have the highest coefficients for the time trends and the highest dependence. However, mean reversion in tertiary education is found in France, the US, and, in particular, Austria. Finally, evidence of nonlinearity is observed in about eight countries, though without altering the persistence in the series. The implications of the empirical results are also presented.

Science-based evidence on pathways and effects of human exposure to micro- and nanoplastics.

Human exposure to plastic particles has raised great concern among all relevant stakeholders involved in the protection of human health due to the contamination of the food chain, surface waters, and even drinking water as well as due to their persistence and bioaccumulation. Now more than ever, it is critical that we understand the biological fate of plastics and their interaction with different biological systems. Because of the ubiquity of plastic materials in the environment and their toxic potential, it is imperative to gain reliable, regulatory-relevant, science-based data on the effects of plastic micro- and nanoparticles (PMNPs) on human health in order to implement reliable risk assessment and management strategies in the circular economy of plastics. This review presents current knowledge of human-relevant PMNP exposure doses, pathways, and toxic effects. It addresses difficulties in properly assessing plastic exposure and current knowledge gaps and proposes steps that can be taken to underpin health risk perception, assessment, and mitigation through rigorous science-based evidence. Based on the existing scientific data on PMNP adverse health effects, this review brings recommendations on the development of PMNP-specific adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) following the AOP Users' Handbook of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

Methanol leaf extract of Leptadenia hastata ameliorates chronic, unpredictable, mild stress-induced depression

Leptadenia hastata (Pers) Decne is a tropical herb widely used in the phytotherapy of neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression. Despite the availability of synthetic antidepressant drugs, depression remains a major medical problem. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of methanol leaf extract of Leptadenia hastata (LHME) on chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depression. Acute toxicity of Leptadenia hastata was determined using Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines. The chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) model-induced depression involves the evaluation of baseline behavioural changes in the sucrose preference test, open field test, and tail suspension test. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concentrations and serum cortisol were assessed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were also assessed using standard procedure. The median lethal dose (LD50) value was &gt; 5000 mg/kg. LHME at doses of 250 – 1000 mg significantly (p&lt;0.01) decreased CUMS-induced depression in a dose-dependent manner. LHME significantly (p&lt;0.01) reversed depression associated weight loss from 14.00±0.62 g in week two to 22.57±1.13 g in week five of the experiment. It also increased sucrose consumption in the sucrose preference test (SPT) from 4.29±0.52 ml in week two to 9.71±0.68 ml in week five. The LHME also significantly (p&lt;0.01) decreased the duration of immobility from 190.00±4.55 sec in week two to 158.00±3.83 sec in week five in the tail suspension test (TST). Furthermore, LHME at the tested dose significantly (p&lt;0.01) increased the locomotor activity from 36.29±1.25 sec in week two to 62.43±1.73 sec in week five in the open field test (OFT). LHME significantly (p&lt;0.01) and dose-dependently increased the levels of BDNF (204.74±22.97 pg/ml) and decreased the levels of plasma cortisol (0.98±0.06 ng/ml). However, treatment with LHME and the standard drug imipramine did not significantly change SOD activity and the MDA level in CUMS-induced mice. The findings demonstrated that LHME ameliorates CUMS-induced depressive-like behaviours, and its effect is possibly mediated via the neuroendocrine (cortisol) and neurotrophic (BDNF).

The Eye-Opening Truth About Private Surgical Facilities in Canada.

This paper examines the contentious issue of using contracted surgical facilities (CSFs) for scheduled eye surgeries within Canada's publicly funded healthcare system. Despite the debate over the use of CSFs, there is a stark lack of Canadian-focused empirical evidence to guide policy decisions. This paper uses the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's healthcare system performance conceptual model - access, quality and cost/expenditures - as a framework to explore the debates surrounding CSFs. It highlights the mixed evidence from international studies and proposes recommendations for policy makers to ensure equitable access, maintain high-quality care and achieve cost-effectiveness. The paper underscores the necessity for informed policy making supported by robust empirical research, stakeholder engagement and continuous policy evaluation to address the challenges posed by the integration of CSFs into Canada's healthcare landscape.

Is there a Positive Influence of Foreign Direct Investment on the Economies of OECD Countries? Empirical Evidence on Countries within the European Area

In the last years, most of the empirical results presented in the international literature are highlighting a positive impact of foreign direct investment on economic growth. This econometric study is taking into account evidence from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries within the European area, the main focus being the economic crisis and the pandemic crisis during the most recent years. The research methodology is based on the Panel Least Squares regression, VAR model and Granger causality test, which proved that the foreign direct investment has a positive impact on economic growth, but not so strong, and the causal relationship is unidirectional from foreign direct investment to economic growth. The results of the study are aligned with the literature review showing a positive influence of foreign direct investment on the economies of OECD countries and are useful in terms of investing decisions and macroeconomic policies.

Advancing Endocrine Disruptors via In Vitro Evaluation: Recognizing the Significance of the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development and United States Environmental Protection Agency Guidelines, Embracing New Assessment Methods, and the Urgent Need for a Comprehensive Battery of Tests.

Efforts are being made globally to improve the evaluation and understanding of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Recognition of their impact on human health and the environment has stimulated attention and research in this field. Various stakeholders, including scientists, regulatory agencies, policymakers, and industry representatives, are collaborating to develop robust methodologies and guidelines for assessing these disruptors. A key aspect of these efforts is the development of standardized testing protocols and guidelines that aim to provide consistent and reliable methods for identifying and characterizing endocrine disruptors. When evaluating the potential endocrine-disrupting activity of chemicals, no single test is capable of detecting all relevant endocrine-disrupting agents. The test battery approach is designed to reduce the risk of false negative results for compounds with toxic potential. A weight-of-evidence approach is therefore necessary for endocrine disruptor evaluation. This approach considers various types of data from multiple sources, assessing the overall strength, consistency, and reliability of the evidence. OECD guidelines are highly regarded for their scientific rigor, transparency, and consensus-based development process. It is crucial to explore and develop new methodologies that can effectively evaluate the risks associated with potential endocrine disruptors. Integrating these methods into a comprehensive weight-of-evidence framework will enhance risk assessments and facilitate informed decisions regarding the regulation and management of these substances, ensuring the protection of human health and the environment from their adverse effects.

Does the board of directors play a role in mitigating real and accrual-based earnings management in the MENA context?

PurposeIn light of the key role attributed to the board of directors as a monitoring tool to constrain earnings management practices, this study aims to examine the effect of some board attributes on accrual-based earnings management and real earnings management in the Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) context, whose institutional, economic and legal environment is markedly different from that of most organization for economic cooperation and development countries.Design/methodology/approachThe authors selected a sample of 161 nonfinancial companies from nine MENA countries between 2014 and 2021 (corresponding to an unbalanced data panel of 486 observations). The authors used the generalized least squares regression test to examine the relationship between board attributes and earnings management.FindingsThe authors found that three board attributes (size, independence and gender diversity) have no effect on both types of earnings management practices, while CEO duality has no effect on accrual-based earnings management but has a significant and negative effect on real earnings management. Overall, the results suggest that most board attributes do not play a crucial role in reducing earnings management.Research limitations/implicationsThe results provide valuable insights into the universal role of corporate governance mechanisms and raise questions about the role of the board of directors in improving reporting quality in the MENA context.Practical implicationsRegulators should adapt corporate governance mechanisms to the characteristics of the institutional context in which they are inserted.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to examine the effect of various board characteristics on both types of earnings management practices in the MENA context. It also provides the first empirical evidence of the relationship between board gender diversity and earnings management in the MENA region.

Risk governance and regulatory adjustments in the public commercial banks of OECD

PurposeThis study aims to explore the relationship between risk governance characteristics (chief risk officer [CRO], chief financial officer [CFO] and senior directors [SENIOR]) and regulatory adjustments (RAs) in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development public commercial banks.Design/methodology/approachUsing principal component analysis (PCA) and regression models, the research analyzes a representative data set of these banks.FindingsA significant negative correlation between risk governance characteristics and RAs is found. Sensitivity analysis on the regulatory Tier 1 capital ratio and the total capital ratio indicates mixed outcomes, suggesting a complex relationship that warrants further exploration.Research limitations/implicationsThe study’s limited sample size calls for further research to confirm findings and explore risk governance’s impact on banks’ capital structures.Practical implicationsEnhanced risk governance could reduce RAs, influencing banking policy.Social implicationsThe study advocates for improved banking regulatory practices, potentially increasing sector stability and public trust.Originality/valueThis study contributes to understanding risk governance’s role in regulatory compliance, offering insights for policymaking in banking.

The impact of digitalization, technological and financial innovation on environmental quality in OECD countries: Investigation of N-shaped EKC hypothesis

This research article aims to determine the interrelationships between digitalization, technological and financial innovation, and environmental quality in selected Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. This study also tests the validity of the N-shaped Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. To this end, we utilize a rigorous three-stage panel data econometrics approach. The empirical outcomes entail that financial innovation decreases carbon emissions, whereas technological innovation and digitalization increase carbon emissions in the OECD countries. The results further underscore that across all models, the first level of gross domestic product (GDP) harms environmental quality. On the flip side, the second level of GDP tends to improve environmental quality. However, the third level of GDP deteriorates environmental quality. In conclusion, the empirical findings corroborate the N-shaped EKC hypothesis in OECD countries, urging policymakers to adopt more sustainable development practices.

Housing affordability indicators and the sustainability paradigm in OECD countries

The present study aimed to analyse the housing affordability indicators (HAI) and sustainability paradigm (SP) of 23 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries for the period of 2010–2019. The study used different estimators to overcome the heterogeneity and endogeneity problems of panel data and adopted many diagnostic tests to increase robustness. The findings of panel least square, generalized least square, and instrumental variables of the two-stage least squares regression approach showed that three HAI proxies - households' housing-related expenditures, housing costs, and housing market proxies - had a significant positive impact on the sustainability paradigm. In contrast, the final two HAI proxies - housing allowance and housing quality – significantly negatively impacted the sustainability paradigm. Regarding the control variables, population density had a significant positive impact on the sustainability paradigm indicators. However, GDP per capita growth had a significant negative impact on most of the sustainability paradigm indicators. The main conclusion is that decision-makers should prioritize making housing more affordable. This could be achieved by controlling rents and low-cost buildings. The OECD should explore alternative methods of support, such as providing low-interest loans or targeted assistance, to help families bear housing costs without negatively impacting their financial sustainability.

An artificial intelligence platform for automated PFAS subgroup classification: A discovery tool for PFAS screening

Since structural analyses and toxicity assessments have not been able to keep up with the discovery of unknown per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), there is an urgent need for effective categorization and grouping of PFAS. In this study, we presented PFAS-Atlas, an artificial intelligence-based platform containing a rule-based automatic classification system and a machine learning-based grouping model. Compared with previously developed classification software, the platform's classification system follows the latest Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) definition of PFAS and reduces the number of uncategorized PFAS. In addition, the platform incorporates deep unsupervised learning models to visualize the chemical space of PFAS by clustering similar structures and linking related classes. Through real-world use cases, we demonstrate that PFAS-Atlas can rapidly screen for relationships between chemical structure and persistence, bioaccumulation, or toxicity data for PFAS. The platform can also guide the planning of the PFAS testing strategy by showing which PFAS classes urgently require further attention. Ultimately, the release of PFAS-Atlas will benefit both the PFAS research and regulation communities.

Association between retirement age and depressive symptoms among Korean retirees: Results from Korean Retirement and Income Panel Study

BackgroundThe effective age of retirement in South Korea is higher than the average of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. Early retirement in Asia may affect mental health differently compared to western countries. Thus, we examined the association between retirement age and depressive symptoms among South Korean retirees. MethodsWe used data from the 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2019 Korean Retirement and Income Panel Study, including a total of 2998, 3152, 3203, 3154, and 3055 participants, respectively. We excluded those younger than 50 years, non-retirees, those without information on the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale, and those with other missing values. We used a generalized estimating equation model to identify the association between retirement age and depressive symptoms measured using the CES-D. ResultsParticipants who retired at age < 50 years had significantly higher CES-D scores (β = 1.764, P = 0.0003) compared to those who retired at age ≥ 70 years. The negative effects of early retirement on depressive symptoms were greater among male participants, heads of households, young involuntary retirees, those who retired within the past 20 years, and those who had no difficulties in activities of daily living. LimitationsSince we evaluated the association between retirement age and depressive symptoms in one direction, there is a possibility of reverse causality. ConclusionOur findings highlight the importance of managing depressive symptoms in early retirees, especially young involuntary retirees and those burdened with family care.

Medie- och informationskunnighet är mer än bara källkritik och tekniskt kunnande. Vilka behov är det som behöver mötas och hur?

The same day as the invasion of Ukraine started, the two biggest TVnews channels in Sweden and the prime minister pointed out the problem with source criticism of media and that it is difficult to know what a reliable source is and why it is very important to be critical (SVT, 2022; TV4, 2022). This article dwells on source criticism in mainly digital media within the school subject of civics, both as a problematizing text and as a discussion. The discussion has its basis in two studies. One is a study from the Swedish Schools Inspectorate that originates from an audit of the teaching of source criticism within civics classes, mainly in regards to digital media and where there is a criticism towards the content and teaching of the subject. The other study is a study from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that was published in May 2021. It is a PISA study where it was noted that 15 year old pupils all over the world had difficulties in sorting facts from opinions in digital media. The Nordic Countries were ranked high, despite only around 50 percent of the pupils managing to differ between fact and opinion. The two studies are then brought up in conjunction with previous research, which mainly focuses on the teaching of source criticism within civic classes and the mediatization process that is ongoing in society, and which forms the basis for the discussion. Based on the problematization it is evident that there is a strong need to increase the knowledge of media and information among pupils, if they are to be brought up as citizens in a democracy. The three main questions are therefore, what kind of MIL do the pupils have and do the teachers in the schools have the opportunity to further their education to a required level and is it reasonable that student teachers in the subjects they are training for should also have time to educate themselves sufficiently in Media and information literacy to be able to strengthen the pupils MIK?