Organisation For Economic Co-operation And Development Countries Research Articles

Growth mindset mediates perceptions of teachers' and parents' process feedback in digital reading performance: Evidence from 32 OECD countries

BackgroundA growth mindset is one's belief that intelligence is malleable. Extensive research has shown that a growth mindset can enhance students' academic performance. However, its mechanism on students' digital reading performance has been little explored. AimsThis study examined the correlation between perceptions of teachers' and parents' process feedback and adolescents' growth mindsets and the relationships among feedback, a growth mindset, and digital reading performance. SampleData on 250,912 fifteen-year-old students from 32 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 were drawn. MethodsThe data were analyzed through the use of multilevel mediation. ResultsThe results showed that in most countries, perceptions of teachers' and parents' process feedback used positively predict adolescents' growth mindsets, which in turn positively predict digital reading performance and mediate the relationship between perceptions of feedback and reading performance. ConclusionsEducators and parents should intentionally integrate process-oriented factors into their feedback to help students realize their academic potential. Cultural heterogeneity should also be considered concerning the role of a growth mindset.

Effects of energy consumption on human development and industrial sector performance in selected Sub-Saharan Africa and OECD countries: comparative analysis

ABSTRACT The objectives of this study are to implicitly investigate the relationship that exist between energy consumption (renewable and non-renewable energy) and human development (with the Human Development Index as proxy); and energy consumption and industrial sector performance (with industrial output as proxy) in selected sub-Saharan Africa and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. Four groups of models were specified and estimated using Panel data for 21 countries according to income criteria from 1990 to 2022. These data were analyzed using Panel Ordinary Least Square (OLS) before which they were filtered with the use of Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test while the Johansen cointegration test was used to justify the long-run relationship among all included variables. The findings of this study revealed that energy consumption was positively related and statistically significant in explaining changes in human development and industrial sector performance in the selected sub-Saharan Africa and the OECD countries. However, changes in Human Development Index (HDI) were not statistically significant in explaining changes inindustrial sector performance in both regions. The results of the estimated models revealed a three-way directional causality among the selected variables. Additionally, it was established that a significant gap exist in human development, energy consumption and industrial sector performance, in favour of the selected OECD countries. Furthermore, it was also established that energy consumption and industrial output are potent determinants of human development in the selected OECD and sub-Saharan African Countries.

Exploring the link between economic policy uncertainty, financial development, ecological innovation and environmental degradation; evidence from OECD countries.

Governments have been concerned with balancing economic growth and environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, it has been noted that sustainable development is interconnected with economic variables, the institutional framework, and the efficacy of ecological regulatory measures. This study experimentally examines the correlation of economic policy uncertainty (EPU), financial development (FD), ecological innovation (EI), corruption (IQ), foreign direct investment (FDI), trade openness (TR), natural resource rent (NRR), and CO2 emission. We utilized longitudinal data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries from 2003 to 2021 to address the existing research void. This study used sequential processes of the linear panel data model (SELPDM) and the SYS-GMM approaches in obtaining consistent and efficient results. The inverse U-shaped relationship between FD and environmental degradation (ED) is confirmed by the long-term elasticity estimates generated by the SELPDM method Elasticity estimates for the long-run show that rigorous ecological regulations, higher renewable energy utilization, higher FD and less corruption, an interaction between FD and rigorous ecological regulations all contribute to reduced ED. Its also being observed that both EPU, FDI and trade openness are positively affecting the ED. It confirms the idea of pollution refuge between the OECD countries. The causality test results show that corruption and FD had reciprocal links with ED, while FDI, trade openness and strict environmental policies were also found to have bidirectional linkage with ED. To achieve sustainable development and prevent environmental degradation in the long term, we propose implementing an institutional financial framework and FD in OECD nations. This may be accomplished by focusing on the effectiveness of environmental regulatory laws and creating a conducive institutional environment.

Determinants of financial performance of FinTechs in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries

The study determined the effect of size, equity, labour, loans, and deposits on the performance of the financial technology (FinTechs; return on assets — ROA and return on equity — ROE). Data on FinTech performance was collected from the Refinitive Eikon platform. As prior studies have found, variables such as size, equity, labour, loans, and deposits can impact the ROA and ROE (Abbasi et al., 2021; Akbar, 2021). Drawing upon prior work examining similar relationships at the firm level one, the research analyzes a sample of 148 FinTech from 10 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries from 2000–2022. Consistent with Abbasi et al.’s (2021) findings regarding FinTech adoption and efficiency, the impact of variables, including size, equity, loans, and deposits on returns, are evaluated. According to the study, it was clear that a rise in the company’s size led to a decline in its financial performance. The findings revealed that assets positively affected the performance of FinTechs across the different financial periods. Labour had a negative effect on the ROA across the OECD countries’ FinTechs, while loans positively affected the performance of the different FinTechs. From the study, there is a need for more collaborative research across academics, policymakers, and industry experts to better the outcomes.

Examining the relationship between public debt and private consumption in European OECD countries (2011–2020)

<abstract> <p>This study examined the impact of public debt on private consumption in 26 European Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries from 2011 to 2020. Analyzing data from OECD, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund reports, we employed various statistical methods, including correlation analysis, linear regression, fixed effect, random effect, and the Generalized Method of Moments model via the Arellano-Bond estimation approach. Our findings indicated that public debt, foreign direct investments, inflation, and gross domestic product (GDP) growth positively influence private consumption, while gross fixed capital formation and exports of goods and services have a negative impact. The study underscores the need for careful consideration of the repercussions of public debt on citizens' daily lives, especially in terms of private consumption, emphasizing the crucial need for policymakers to consider the delicate balance between public debt management and sustainable economic growth in OECD countries for shaping effective economic policies that foster responsible debt management to support long-term economic development.</p> </abstract>

The impact of higher education on global competitiveness: A panel data analysis for OECD countries

In this article, the impact of higher education on global competitiveness in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries has been analyzed empirically. For this purpose, a dataset consisting of 18 OECD countries, including the period 2004-2018, was formed by using databases obtained from the OECD, World Bank (WB), World Economic Forum (WEF), and the United Nations Educational and Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In the application phase, Elena I. Dumitrescu and Christophe Hurlin?s (2012) Granger Panel Causality Test was used to reveal whether there is a short-term relationship between each variable representing higher education and the variable representing global competitiveness (Global Competitiveness Index), whereas Joakim Westerlund?s (2007) Panel Cointegration Test was used to reveal whether there is a long-term relationship. Consequently, it has been determined that there is a causality relationship between each variable representing higher education and the Global Competitiveness Index in the short term and a cointegration relationship in the long term.

Changes in agricultural nitrogen (N) balance of OECD countries and its causes and impacts

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) developed soil surface nutrient balance and made it mandatory for member countries to report annual nutrient budgets since 1990. This study aimed to evaluate the status of nitrogen (N) management in member countries and to figure out why N surplus levels differ across countries and how they relate to other agri-environmental indicators, by analyzing the N budgets from 35 OECD countries over the last 30 years. Of the three factors determining N balance (agricultural land area, N input, and N output), agricultural land area decreased in most OECD countries, negatively affecting N balance reduction. However, OECD's average N balance highly decreased from 91 to 46 kg ha−1 over the last 30 years due to the decrease in N input through inorganic fertilizers and manure, especially in EU countries with high N input levels, while N output did not meaningfully change. In comparison, in Japan and Korea, the N balance slightly increased and they became the highest N balance country recently. A higher N balance led to lower N use efficiency and higher ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission intensities. More densely populated countries with smaller agricultural land per capita (ranging from 0.03 to 0.47 ha capita−1) showed a higher N balance (228–80 kg ha−1), presumably due to higher N input for more agricultural production on limited land. The most densely populated countries among OECD members (Belgium, the Netherlands, Korea, and Japan) had similar N input levels. However, two EU countries had much higher N output than two Asian countries due to higher pasture production, which led to a lower N balance and higher N use efficiency. Therefore, highly populated countries with small arable land areas per capita might need multilateral efforts to alleviate agricultural N balance.

Financial development, resource richness, eco-innovation, and sustainable development: Does geopolitical risk matter?

Financial development and geopolitical risks can significantly affect sustainable development. However, the roles of these factors in sustainable development are rarely investigated. Thus, this study takes into account the role of geopolitical risk while exploring the effects of financial development, natural resource rents, and eco-innovation on sustainable development in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. To this end, yearly data from 1990 to 2019 is analyzed using advanced econometric tests. The Common Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) results indicate that financial development and eco-innovation are significantly and positively related to sustainable development. Natural resource rents have a detrimental impact on sustainable development which confirms the presence of the resource curse hypothesis in OECD countries. Furthermore, the results revealed that controlling geopolitical risk is useful in fostering sustainable development. Lastly, the panel Granger causality test unveiled one-way causality from financial development, eco-innovation, natural resource rents, and geopolitical risk to sustainable development. Moreover, causalities are found from geopolitical risk to financial development, eco-innovation and natural resources. These findings suggest that OECD countries should prioritize financial development and eco-innovation policies for sustainable development while mitigating the negative effects of natural resource rents. The geopolitical risk can harm sustainable development, so policymakers should promote international cooperation and risk-sharing.

Interdependencies between international innovation partnerships: the case of Central and Eastern Europe

PurposeCompetitively multipolar international system demands bilateral and multilateral partnerships. Joint innovation signals close partnerships. Regional proximity of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) to the European Union (EU) defines its research and development objectives. These objectives are additionally subjected to the USA’s geopolitical strategy in this geographical area. Hence, CEE’s limited resources require limited resources make international innovation cooperation. This paper aims to analyse whether and how CEE countries make international innovation cooperation decisions.Design/methodology/approachThis paper used Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) database of total patent applications filed to the patent cooperation treaty (PCT) with co-applicants from abroad, where co-patents with at least one foreign inventor present a measure of international innovation partnership. A vector autoregression analysis and impulse response function were used to analyse international innovation partnership choices of eight CEE OECD countries for the period 1990–2018.FindingsInnovation with the EU is of collaborative nature, commonly displaying complementary properties with the rest of the examined innovation partners, while co-patenting with the Russia and China act as substitutes or complements. Co-patenting with Russia is the most versatile, displaying both properties of collaboration and competition. Some countries exhibit complementarity in co-patenting activities with multiple partners. The significance levels of these relationships vary, indicating varying degrees of impact. Overall, these findings highlight the complex dynamics of co-patenting activities and the influence of different partners on countries’ collaborative innovation strategies.Research limitations/implicationsIn addition to significant relationships, insignificant relationships as well as those that could bring about greater synergy are flagged in the paper. Those relationships portray possible direction into which national funds could be channelled to incite cooperation between different sectors and countries, especially as innovation partnerships are not always successful and require a long time period to materialise.Originality/valueBy examining bilateral innovation partnerships, this study provides an insight into the strategic political and economic spheres of influence in the CEE region.

The Effect of Education and Health as Fundamentals of Human Capital on Global Competition: A Panel Data Analysis on OECD Countries

The aim of the current study is to analyze the effect of education and health as the main elements of human capital on global competition in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries using the Granger Panel Causality Test. Accordingly, in the application part of the study, with the data obtained from the World Economic Forum (WEF), the World Bank (WB), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) databases, a panel data set was established for 18 OECD countries for which healthy data could be reached for the period of 2004-2018. As a result of the analysis, a causality relationship was determined between each variable representing education and health as the basic elements of human capital and the global competition for short term. When the results of the Westerlund (2007) panel cointegration test were examined, it was seen that there is a long-term relationship between the Global Competitiveness Index (gci) variable and all the other variables except for variables h1 and h2.

Globalisation and carbon dioxide emissions inequality in OECD countries

AbstractEconomic growth has been crucial in contributing to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the Industrial Revolution, and it affects CO2 emissions heterogeneously with different income levels. Therefore, studying the role of economic growth on inequality in carbon emissions is imperative. This paper analyses the determinants of CO2 emissions inequality in the panel dataset of 37 Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) countries from 1990 to 2019. Age dependency, globalisation, and institutional quality reduce CO2 inequality in the OECD economies. However, gross domestic product per capita increases CO2 inequality. The results are robust to utilise different panel data estimation techniques. This paper provides the first evidence in the literature of determinants of CO2 inequality across the OECD countries. It is suggested that governments in the OECD economies offer a blueprint for a sustainable society of green economic growth. Other potential policy implications are also discussed.

Global Burden and Trends of Acute Myeloid Leukemia Attributable to High Body Mass Index in 38 OECD Countries between 1990-2019: A Benchmarking Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a significant cause of mortality and disability, ranking 17th among leading causes of death and 15th among leading causes of disability among all cancers in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. Current evidence suggests a potential association between a high body mass index (BMI) and an increased risk of AML and other cancers. However, the impact of high BMI on AML burden may vary due to factors such as geographical location, lifestyle, genetic predisposition, and changes in obesity rates over time. This study aimed to assess the burden of AML attributable to high BMI in 38 OECD countries from 1990 to 2019. Method: The methodology employed the Global Burden of Disease approach, analyzing AML deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to high BMI across age groups, sexes, and years in the 38 OECD countries using standardized methods and statistical modeling. The results were reported in absolute counts and age-standardized rates (per 100,000 person-years). Results: The study found that the total number of AML deaths attributable to high BMI increased from 1,625 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 726-2,831) in 1990 to 4,295 (95% UI: 2,094-7,105) in 2019, while DALYs increased from 43,467 (95% UI: 19,649-75,434) to 96,289 (95% UI: 47,925-157,090) between 1990 and 2019. The age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) rose from 0.13 (95% UI: 0.06-0.22) to 0.19 (95% UI: 0.09-0.31) cases per 100,000 during the same period, and the age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDALR) increased from 3.47 (95% UI: 1.57-6) to 4.83 (95% UI: 2.43-7.83) cases per 100,000 persons. Notably, Colombia experienced the highest increase in the annual percentage of change (APC) in total AML deaths (474%), followed by South Korea (398%), and Costa Rica (315%), while Latvia showed the lowest increase of 16% from 1990 to 2019. Concerning DALYs, Colombia had the highest APC increase (391%), followed by Costa Rica (268%) and Mexico (246%), while Latvia observed a 2% decrease in APC from 1990 to 2019. Switzerland and Denmark showed decreases in APC for ASMR (6% and 9%, respectively) from 1990 to 2019, and Finland, Japan, Denmark, and Switzerland demonstrated decreases in APC for ASDALR (4%, 6%, 18%, and 20%, respectively). The United States reported the highest number of AML deaths (1,575) and DALYs (35,063) attributable to high BMI in 2019. Individuals aged 70-74 years had the highest number of deaths (709, 95% UI: 356-1,168) and DALYs (13,762, 95% UI: 6,939-22,564) in 2019 in OECD countries. Additionally, males showed higher deaths and DALYs compared to females due between 1990 and 2019. Conclusion: The burden of AML attributed to high BMI has continued to rise in the majority of countries over the past three decades. As obesity is a modifiable risk factor, effective preventive strategies, counseling for high-risk individuals, and coordinated efforts by healthcare professionals and policymakers are essential to implement interventions across OECD countries. Given obesity's significance as a modifiable risk factor for various cancers, urgent action is needed to address this public health challenge.

Modelling the air pollution induced health effects of energy consumption across varied spaces in OECD countries: An asymmetric analysis

The air pollution-induced health effects of energy consumption remain a grey area in the extant literature. As of yet, there are very limited studies on the subject matter for countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). To this end, we employ panel data from 1990 to 2019 for 37 OECD countries and panel estimation techniques that control for distributional asymmetry. We also utilize a composite variable of mortality and morbidity to capture the full spectrum of air pollution-induced health burdens. Our findings reveal that renewable energy ameliorates the health burden of air pollution in indoor spaces, evidence for the ameliorating effects of renewable energy in outdoor and occupational spaces was however weak. We also show that income has an ameliorating effect on air pollution-induced health burdens across all spaces and that the effect of non-renewable energy is asymmetric and disparate across all spaces. Furthermore, while technological innovation ameliorates the health burden of air pollution in indoor spaces, it exacerbates the health burden of air pollution in both occupational and outdoor spaces. These findings thus show that the positive health implications of renewable energy policy interventions have more traction in indoor spaces. Capacity needs to be built in the renewable energy sector to reduce the pollution-inducing health burdens emanating from ambient and occupational spaces.

Determinants of sustainable energy in OECD countries: Role of technology and financial resources

Financial development is a leading factor toward economic expansion and endorsing energy innovations worldwide. However, financial development has alarmed stakeholders to evade its harmful impacts on environmental performance. Following the energy trade theoretical perspective, this paper aims to scrutinize the effects of financial development, environment-related technology and foreign direct investment (FDI) on sustainable energy in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) economies over the period 1990–2020. To reduce the omitting variables' errors, a pool of control variables consisting of urbanization, economic growth and exports is constructed. The study's empirical findings based on the system Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) model elaborate that financial development significantly promotes renewable energy consumption and mitigates environmental deterioration in advanced nations. In terms of environment related technologies (ERT) and FDI, both become a cause to significantly preserve the environmental quality to align with carbon neutrality targets and sustainable development goals (SDGs). These outcomes are further validated with quantile regression to report the heterogeneous results. In the end, this article suggests necessary policy implications for the stakeholders.

Managing Environmental Policy Stringency to Ensure Sustainable Development in OECD Countries

In response to climate change that threatens both economic and social sustainable development, governments adopt strict environmental policy measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and encourage the use of energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this study is to investigate to what extent the strictness of environmental policy can influence the level of greenhouse gas emissions and the consumption of renewable energy in selected Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) method and Granger causality test were employed in order to investigate the long-run relationship between the main components of the environmental policy stringency index and the evolution of greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy consumption. The results indicate significant influences of the Market-based instruments sub-index and the Technology Support policies sub-index on greenhouse gas emissions reduction, while the Non-Market Based instruments index, which includes policies that impose emission limits and standards, does not exert any significant influence in this regard. Regarding the impact on renewable energy consumption, the results of this study indicate significant positive influences from the perspective of the three sub-indices used in the analysis. These results should send a signal to decision-makers on the effectiveness of policies that impose emission limits and standards, in the sense that their improvement will generate significant influences in mitigating climate change risks.

Fifty years of evidence on perinatal experience among refugee and asylum-seeking women in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries: A scoping review.

Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) play a significant role in hosting and supporting refugees. Refugees and asylum seekers in OECD countries may face unique challenges in accessing perinatal healthcare. These challenges can impact their use of and experience with perinatal health services leading to poor maternal and infant outcomes. This scoping review describes the general trends in perinatal health research among refugees/asylum seekers in OECD countries over the past fifty years (1970 to 2021) as well as summarizes their perinatal experience. Databases including Embase and Medline were searched using relevant key words for "refugee/ asylum seeker", "perinatal ", and " OECD countries.". Articles were excluded if they only involved economic migrants or internally displaced persons, conducted in non-OECD countries, only assessed health behaviors and practices during pregnancy (e.g., smoking), or were published in a language other than English. The final list of articles included 82 unique studies. In the 40 years between 1970 and 2009, very few studies (n = 9) examined perinatal health among refugees/ asylum seekers in OECD countries. However, an increasing trend was observed over the past decade. Early studies (1980 to 2009) focused more on traditional perinatal outcomes; however, from 2010 onwards, studies related to perinatal experience were more likely to emerge in the global health literature. Access to timely prenatal care remains a challenge with failure to address the root causes of the problem in several OECD countries including those with a long history of hosting refugees. The limited availability of interpretation services and the lack of a patient-centered approach to care have also interfered with the perceived quality of care. In addition, perceived isolation and the limited social support experienced by this vulnerable population have negatively impacted their perinatal experiences in several OECD countries. Refugee/asylum seekers in OECD countries face a number of challenges during the perinatal period. Policy changes and further research are needed to address access barriers and identify specific interventions that can improve their well-being during this critical period.

Identifying literacy and numeracy skill mismatch in OECD countries using the job analysis method

Abstract The Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is currently the most important data source that provides information on the key skills possessed by workers, including literacy and numeracy. However, to assess skill mismatch, we also need information on the required skills in those domains, measured in the same metric and scale. In this article, we use the Job Analysis Method (JAM) to determine the required skill levels of literacy and numeracy for all four-digit International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) 2008 unit groups. JAM is often considered the ‘gold standard’ in estimating required levels but has never been used in the context of PIAAC. This article thus presents the first results on the prevalence of skill mismatches using JAM comparing different OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries and different occupations. We compare our results with alternative methods and show some advantages of using JAM. We discuss some of the limitations as well.

Economic integration and consumption risk sharing: A comparison of Eurozone and OECD countries

Economic theory predicts that economic integration can facilitate improvements in international consumption risk sharing. We test this proposition by comparing risk sharing among Eurozone members and members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) using a dynamic common correlated effects mean group estimator (DCCEMG). The results reveal that the OECD members outperform the Eurozone members in terms of short run and long run risk sharing, despite the barriers to risk sharing being considerably lower among the latter. We attribute this outcome to lower business cycle synchronization and stock return correlations among OECD members, which creates better opportunities to share risk within the group. The results highlight the trade-off between the benefits of business cycle synchronization and international risk sharing. More tightly integrated economies, facilitate trade in assets that promotes better portfolio diversification, while at the same time are characterized by higher business cycle synchronization that depletes agents of risk sharing opportunities. Consequently, our results give strong support to the hypothesis of “diminishing international diversification potential”. However, the benefits associated with the improved risk sharing are increasing with the number of countries in the monetary union.

Determinants of Pharmaceutical Expenditure in OECD Countries: Evidence from Panel Data

Purpose –The objective of this study is to identify the main factors affecting pharmaceutical expenditures in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries.Design/methodology/approach –In this study, it was investigated whether the university graduate rate(UNI), the unemployment rate(UNEMP), gross domestic productper capita (GDP) in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP $),and the number of physicians per 1,000 people (PHY) affected per capita pharmaceutical expenditures (PHAR)(PPP $) by using panel data analysis. The population of the study was 33 OECD countries whose data were available. The data consisted of the time period of 2013-2016. Results –GDP and UNIstatistically significantly increased PHAR (p<0.05). The UNEMPand PHYalso increased PHAR, but the effects of these variables were not found to be statistically significant (p>0.05). The variables included in the model explained 22% of the variance in PHAR.Conclusion –PHAR are affected by economic factors and sociodemographic factors as well as health systems' structure. Therefore, governments wishing to control pharmaceutical expenditures should also focus on these variables.

Extreme events and the resilience of decentralised governance

ABSTRACT Extreme events, such as economic crises, natural disasters or military conflicts, can affect the balance between centralisation and decentralisation forces across countries and transform, temporarily or more permanently, the design of multilevel governance. Using a panel of 91 developing and developed countries from 1960 to 2018, and another for Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries between 1995 and 2018, we examine the effects of extreme external shocks on the decentralisation level. We find that armed conflicts boost decentralisation, while natural disasters reduce it only in non-OECD countries, with long-lasting effects in both cases. Economic recessions do not have significant effects on the level of decentralisation, except for the lasting effects on expenditure recentralisation in OECD countries.