Copper Ore Research Articles

Reconstructing the invention of the wheel using computational structural analysis and design

The invention of the wheel is widely credited as a pivotal moment in human history, yet the details surrounding its discovery are shrouded in mystery. There remains no scholarly consensus on key questions such as where, how and by whom this technology was originally invented. In this study, we employ state-of-the-art techniques from computational structural mechanics to shed light on this long-standing puzzle. Based on this analysis, we propose a probable path along which the wheel evolved via a sequence of three major innovations. We also introduce an original computational design algorithm that autonomously generates a wheel-and-axle system using an evolutionary process that offers insight into the way in which the first wheels likely evolved nearly 6000 years ago. Our analysis provides new supporting evidence for the recently advanced theory that the wheel was invented by Neolithic miners harvesting copper ore from the Carpathian Mountains as early as 3900 BC. Moreover, we show how the discovery of the wheel was made possible by the unique physical features of the mine environment, whose impact was analogous to the selective environmental pressures that drive biological evolution.

Development of a methodology for prediction and calibration of parameters of DEM simulations based on machine learning

This research work aims to develop a robust methodology for the global estimation of interaction parameters based on machine learning, applicable to the discrete element method (DEM) in the study of granular materials. The specific objectives include establishing a theoretical framework that relates the interaction micro-parameters with the macro-parameters and the physical behaviour of the material; performing DEM simulations for different material parameters; developing a machine learning-based model for global parameter estimation; and consolidating the methodology for obtaining micro-parameters for a given material and behaviour. The methodology will be applied specifically to the case of dry copper ore, evaluating its limitations and the possibility of extension to materials with other characteristics. This approach does not consider direct experimental tests, but focuses on the characterisation of the relationship between the input parameters of the material and its response through simulations, validating the response and sensitivity of the model in its different stages. The methodology is expected to allow the systematic estimation of interaction properties for a DEM model, considering micro-parameter duplicities and their global selection, aspects little addressed in the literature. The final verification includes mechanisms and key questions that facilitate future modifications and improvements, allowing its application to materials of different characteristics beyond the specific case study.

Application of ultrasound for leaching Vietnamese monazite concentrate with NaOH solutions to obtain chlorides of rare earth elements

Relevance. Despite the use of alkali stripping technology for processing monazite concentrate in industry, this method has a number of limitations, such as low efficiency of concentrate stripping, the need to use a large excess of alkali and a long process time. Aim. Improvement of existing technology to overcome these limitations. Methods. Fusion with NaOH under pressure and fusion with NaOH combined with ball milling, as well as fusion with NaOH using high intensity ultrasound. High-intensity ultrasound has long been studied and used in industry to intensify leaching/alloying in various applications to increase efficiency and speed in leaching for copper, vanadium, nickel, bauxite and uranium ores. This article is devoted to studying the influence of high-intensity ultrasound on the efficiency of opening monazite concentrate with NaOH solutions. Experimental data were obtained using mass spectrometric, X-ray diffraction and ICP-OES analysis methods. Results and conclusions. The optimal conditions for leaching batches of samples weighing from 100 g to 1 kg were determined. The authors have carried out the research on the separation of radioactive elements and impurities in a solution of rare earth chlorides, obtaining a solution of rare earth chlorides purified from radioactive components and impurities. It was shown that ultrasonic exposure eliminates the disadvantages of traditional fusion technology with NaOH, which can be used for deep processing of Vietnamese monazite concentrate. The conditions for obtaining REE chlorides from a previously opened monazite concentrate are given.

Lithophysical characteristics of productive strata of cupriferous sandstone within Zhezkazgan ore district in the Central Kazakhstan

Purpose. The paper concerns additional geological appraisal and identification of extra localization criteria of cupriferous mineralization of a stratiform type. The research is intended to define physical and geological factors influencing sandstone distribution within the north-end of Zhezkazgan synclinal in the Central Kazakhstan. Methods. A complex analysis of geological and mineralogical, geophysical, and geochemical data was carried out relying upon the information obtained from deep-hole wells. Modern methods to process and interpret the field data were applied. The analysis involved lithological dismemberment of the productive Taskuduk suite as well as determination of sulfide mine-ralization zone boundaries. Findings. The research has shown that the productive levels reach down to 1500-m depth. The data interpretation has helped specify the geological structure and develop a model of ore-promising bodies of cupriferous sandstones at great depth. The applied complex data analysis has increased potential to prospect new loci of productive cupriferous sandstone deposits of Zhezkazgan type. Originality. The research has contributed significantly to understanding of the physical and geological factors influencing the copper ore distribution in deep layers. New physical and geological criteria, determining deep copper mineralization localization, have been identified which were not considered by earlier similar studies. Practical implications. The obtained new data as well as the developed methods are important while deep drilling planning and implementing to identify promising copper mineralization sites. The findings may be used to optimize exploration within the north-end of Zhezkazgan synclinal, and other districts having analogous geological conditions.

ПЕРВЫЕ СВЕДЕНИЯ О МЕДНОЙ МИНЕРАЛИЗАЦИИ РУДОПРОЯВЛЕНИЯ ШАРОМСКОЕ, ЦЕНТРАЛЬНАЯ КАМЧАТКА

The report provides new data on the mineralogy of the ores of the Sharomskoye copper ore occurrence, the Kirganik-Sharom ore zone in Central Kamchatka. Copper ores are confined to the central part of the submeridional massif of subalkaline metasomatites. Mineralization is disseminated, less often vein-disseminated in nature.The studied ore samples, collected during field works in 2023, are represented by silicified metasomatites with developed sulfide mineralization. Among the vein and accessory minerals are quartz, chlorite, barite and apatite. Ore minerals are represented by magnetite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Hematite and malachite are the most common supergene minerals, while cuprite and hydroxides of Fe and Cu are less common. The established chalcopyrite-bornite mineral association of the Sharomskoye ore occurrence is considered typical of other copper mineral prospects in central Kamchatka and is characteristic of porphyry copper deposits.

Moderate permeability enhanced microbial community turnover and copper extraction during bioleaching of low-grade copper ores

Heap bioleaching is one of the most promising technologies for extracting valuable metals from low-grade ores. However, the effects of permeability of the heap on microbial community and bioleaching efficiency remain unclear. In this study, heap bioleaching systems with different permeability were constructed. Despite the high content of larger particles had better permeability (0.25 cm/s) and oxygen transfer efficiency (0.14), there was a 25 % decrease in copper extraction compared with the moderate permeability group (81.2 %), while low permeability (0.025 cm/s) could cut the extraction in half (48.5 %). The fine profiles of microbial communities based on relatively and absolutely quantitative technologies suggested that permeability significantly affected microbial diversity, biomass, and composition. Microbial community evenness was crucial to improving extraction than biomass. Additionally, Thermoplasmatales except for Acidiplasma and Ferroplasma played vital roles in bioleaching. This study highlighted the delicate trade-off of particle size-mediated permeability for intensifying bioleaching efficiency of low-grade copper ores.

Impact of the feed particle size distribution and its packing characteristics on compression comminution

Due to its lower energy consumption than a conventional grinding circuit, there is an increased interest in the mining industry in the High-Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) technology. Despite the benefits, the high quantity of material required to size the HPGR makes it difficult for new mines to consider this technology. The piston press test has been used at The University of British Columbia to predict the behavior of the HPGR. It is possible to predict energy requirements, size reduction, and throughput by utilizing a small amount of material to size the HPGR. The bulk material’s particle size distribution (PSD) plays an important role in how the particle bed will pack. This study investigates the differences in compressing three different sample PSDs obtained from the same copper ore crushed to −12.5 mm. The first PSD corresponds to the natural distribution resulting from the crusher. The second is created artificially to match the Fuller curve PSD, which theoretically should have the highest packing density. The third corresponds to a truncated feed produced by removing the fines (−300μm) from the natural feed. Tests were performed using a piston-and-die press test apparatus to compress the samples at different force levels. Entirely different behaviors are obtained while compressing the same material with different PSDs. Particularly, the Fuller curve PSD achieves a 31%–40% higher grinding rate than the natural feed, while the truncated feed achieves a 9%–30% higher grinding rate than the natural feed. Differences in the specific energy consumption, grinding efficiency, and final compacted densities highlight the critical influence of feed particle size distribution on the energy usage and generation of fine particles, underscoring the importance of optimizing these parameters for energy-efficient mineral processing. The overall findings indicate that an HPGR feed particle size distribution that matches the Fuller curve and, therefore, has a maximum packing density, results in the most energy-efficient comminution.

Effects of mining activities and municipal wastewaters on element accumulation and integrated biomarker responses of the European chub (Squalius cephalus)

This study aimed to determine concentrations of 29 elements in the gills and liver as well as biomarker response in gills, liver, and blood of European chub from Pek River (exposed to long-term mining activities), and to compare these findings with individuals from Ibar River (influenced by emission of treated municipal wastewater) and Kruščica reservoir (source of drinking water) using inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The metal pollution index (MPI) was also calculated. Supporting analyses for the detection of the municipal wastewater presence at investigated localities included analyses of microbiological indicators (total coliforms and Escherichia coli) of faecal pollution. We have assessed biomarker responses from molecular to organism level using the condition index, comet assay, micronucleus test, oxidative stress parameters, histopathological alterations, and fluorescence spectroscopy parameters. Multibiomarker analysis was summarized by Integrated Biomarker Response v2 (IBRv2). Among these locations, Kruščica exhibited the lowest, whereas the Pek River displayed the highest values for both categories of indicator bacteria. Due to the porphyry copper ores mining, individuals from Pek River had several times higher Cu concentrations in both gills and liver compared to the other localities which was confirmed by biomarker responses and IBRv2 value. On the contrary, fish from Kruščica reservoir were the least affected by elemental pollution which is also confirmed by low MPI and IBRv2 values. Responses of biomarkers correspond to the elemental accumulation in the liver and gills of the Ibar River are positioned between the Pek River and Kruščica reservoir. Of all the biomarkers analyzed in this study, the condition index was the least sensitive. The results of this study showed that fluorescence spectroscopy may be a method for fast screening of structural changes in gills caused by the pollution burden.

Casting and Forging techniques Found in Bronze vessels Excavated from Mangduksa Temple Site in Gyeongju

Metallographic analysis of microstructure, chemical composition and hardness was carried out on 7 bronze vessels from Mangduksa temple site in Gyeongju. Result show that the technology of bronze vessels divided into casting and forging followed by quenching. Tin contents of casting bronzes were around 11∼14 wt%, forging bronzes were about 21∼23 wt% tin. Kundika and dish of casting bronzes were Cu-Sn-Pb alloys and 5 bowl samples were produced using Cu-Sn binary alloy materials. These show that the manufacturing technology was applied different depends on the Sn contents. Also 4 bowls of approximately 20 wt% tin were manufactured by forging and quenching at above 520℃ avoid formation of the brittle δ phase. The non-metallic inclusions in the 7 bronze samples are divided into Cu-S and Cu-Fe-S-Se systems, indicating that the copper ore used the production is different. It was confirmed that casting bronze vessels had lower micro-hardness values than forging samples, and that hardness values changed depending on Sn content and processing.

Analysis on the Ancient Bronze Cooking Outils Excavated from Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle in Hangpaduri, Jeju

The microstructure of ancient bronze cooking outil excavated in historic site of anti-Mongolian struggle in Hangpaduri was analyzed to confirm various manufacturing techniques. Bronze spoon and bronze ladles were made by alloying only copper and tin, and the alloy ratio included approximately 22% tin in the copper composition of the forged high tin bronze. The manufacturing process of forged high tin bronze technology, which commonly involves high-temperature forging and final finishing with quenching, was performed. In addition, the sulfide elongated in the longitudinal direction shows that the copper material supplied to the metal may be copper ore containing sulfur such as chalcopyrite and chalcocite. The three bronzewares were made using a binary alloy of copper-tin and a ternary alloy of copper-tin-lead, respectively. Manufacturing techniques using a binary alloy of copper-tin are divided into a forged high tin bronze technique using a hammering and quenching process and a manufacturing technique system of quenching after casting into a shape. Bronze bowl made using a ternary alloy of copper-tin-lead contain 11 wt% tin and 9 wt% lead in the main metal of copper. The lead contained in large quantities is formed in an uneven size within the microstructure, and shows the characteristic of sulfide being distributed around the lead. In addition, there are no traces of additional processing or heat treatment such as quenching. Therefore, it can be seen that the work process was completed by casting the shape. The results of the microstructure analysis show various manufacturing technology systems applied to the bronze cooking outils from historic site of anti-Mongolian struggle in Hangpaduri, Jeju. In particular, through comparison with bronze artifacts utensils excavated from other regions of the Sambyeolcho’s historic site, the possibility of bronze being introduced due to the migration of the Sambyeolcho was confirmed.

Characterization and acid leaching beneficiation studies of Anka (Zamfara State, Nigeria) copper ore deposit

The chemical and mineralogical characterization of the Anka copper was examined and its susceptibility to H2SO4 acid leaching was assessed. A crude sample of the ore, weighing 5 kg, was sourced from the mines, communiated, homogenized, and characterised the crude sample. A 100 g fraction of the crushed sample was subjected to fractional sieve analysis and each sieve retained was chemically analysed. The leaching process was carried out on 100 g of -125+90 µm sieve size fraction using H2SO4 acid and the resulting product was chemically analyzed. The characterization result reveals 42.271% CuO using the energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and the x-ray diffractometer shows that the ore is mainly composed of Cu-carbonate hydroxide in the form of malachite mineral. The scanning electron microscope micrograph suggests that the ore contains dispersed grains of sodium aluminium silicate and copper carbonate hydroxide in a silica-dominated matrix. The ore's liberation size was determined to be at the sieve size of -125+90 μm. Finally, the ore was discovered to be responsive to the H2SO4 acid leaching operation, leading to an enrichment of the feed from 42.27% Cu to a pregnant solution of 52.51% Cu and the residue from the leaching was analyzed to be 4.69% Cu.

The diversity of bronze production technologies during the Eastern Zhou dynasty revealed by analysis of slags from the Baidian and Xincun sites in Central China

The Eastern Zhou period of China, characterised by complex interactions among vassal states, witnessed significant advancements in bronze production technology. However, the investigation of interactions based on technological comparison among dominant and dependent states remains limited. Focusing on two newly excavated foundry sites, Baidian in Houma, Shanxi, and Xincun in Hebi, Henan, this study provides crucial insights into the bronze production technologies and material sources used by Jin, a major vassal state in Central China, and Wei, a dependent state of Jin, during the Eastern Zhou period. Elemental analysis and microstructural examinations of slags, fragments of crucible wall and furnace wall, show the diversity of bronze production techniques between these two sites: in the Baidian site, bronzes were predominantly produced by co-melting of metallic copper and tin, and remelting of recycled bronzes, whereas in the Xincun site, bronze were probably made by co-melting of copper and tin ore. Furthermore, lead isotope analysis results suggest that the lead materials used for the bronze production at both the sites were likely from the Xiaoqinling region. Integrated with the historical background of complex interactions among vassal states, these findings not only shed light on the technological advancements and resource networks of the Jin and Wei states but also explain the relationships between technology, resources and social dynamics from various perspective. Hopefully this research would promote archeometallurgical study among regions and be applied to other Bronze Age cultures in the world.

MODELLING THE CONDITIONS OF CIRCULATING WATER SUPPLY FOR A COPPER ORE PROCESSING PLANT

There is carried out a quantitative assessment of the changes in the circulating water composition under the influence of its conditioning method in a circulating water supply system of the Balkhash Concentrator Plant. Research objects are circulating water model mixtures which are reuse in copper ores flotation after clarification in a tailings dam. They are obtained in a laboratory because of modelling the mixing and storage conditions of enrichment tailings from the Balkhash Concentrator Plant and acid effluents neutralization sludge from the Balkhash Copper Smelter Plant with industrial effluents from other enterprises in Balkhash region. There is considers two schemes for conditioning of recycle water in the process water supply system: by mixing clarified water obtained during the combined or separate waste storage (enrichment tailings and acid effluents neutralization sludge). Studies haveshown that after mixing these flows in the tail collector and their combined storage in the tailings dam chemical and physico-chemical processes occur that contribute to the removal of several pollutants (copper, arsenic, iron, zinc, cadmium, and nickel) from circulating water, which can be explained by the binding of cations these elements into insoluble compounds. Based on the results obtained, it is recommended to use a combined waste storage technology for the circulating water conditioning.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopic Study of Secondary Minerals in the Oxidation Zones of Copper-Bearing Deposits

This study measured the infrared spectra of secondary minerals in the oxidation zones of three types of copper ores: dioptase, malachite, and azurite, and assigned the peak positions of OH stretching vibrations and the origins of OH combination vibrations. Dioptase contains three types of water molecules with different orientations within its ring channels, which exhibit six kinds of OH stretching vibrations in the 3000–3600 cm−1 range; the bond length range is 2.652 to 2.887 Å. Among them, the 3443 cm−1 band shows strong near-infrared activity and combines with Si–O vibrations or OH bending vibrations in the structure, resulting in five combination vibration peaks in the 4000–5000 cm−1 range. Malachite contains two inequivalent hydroxyls in its structure, leading to two OH stretching vibrations in the high-frequency region located at 3314 and 3402 cm−1, respectively. Azurite contains only one type of hydroxyl, and thus only one characteristic OH stretching vibration is present at 3424 cm−1. The OH stretching vibrations of malachite and azurite mainly combine with [CO3]2− vibrations or OH bending vibrations, leading to six and five combination peaks in the OH combination vibration region, respectively. By analyzing the combination of peak positions at 4341 cm−1 in the near-infrared spectrum, the merged OH bending vibration at 921 cm−1 in azurite was discovered. Spectroscopic research on secondary minerals can better provide a basis for ore exploration and geological remote sensing.

The early medieval origins of copper ore extraction in the Carpathian Mountains

The case study addresses the question of the early medieval revival of copper production in Europe. The focus of the research area is the Carpathian Basin, located on the eastern periphery of the zone influenced by European early medieval processes. The research of where and when early medieval metal production started in the region in our case also provides answers to the question of how the region was linked to the European continental economic network, which is until recently an unresolved problem. Ore extraction and the production of various non-ferrous metals (copper, silver, gold) had important centres in the Carpathian Mountains throughout the Middle Ages until the Modern Era. Concerning the Avar period, our study comprises lead isotope and chemical analyses of ‘Late Avar’ (c. 8th century AD) copper rivets, used for certain purposes alongside the copper alloys predominant in the period. As rivets were selected from the entire Avar cultural area, expanding virtually to all lowland and hilly areas in the Carpathian Basin, results are representative of the entire region. It shows that Avar craftsmen producing large quantities of copper alloy objects in the 8th and the early 9th century were supplied with copper from a single mining district, from the ore deposits of the Slovak Ore Mountains in the today Central Slovakia, a region which became an important metal-processing centre in the 11th century AD.

Flotation Tailings from Cu-Au Mining (Bor, Serbia) as a Potential Secondary Raw Material for Valuable Metals Recovery

The increased exploitation of ores leads to the generation of mining waste, which has a negative impact on the environment and human health. For this reason, it is necessary to take care of it in an adequate way by applying some of the possible treatments. In addition to protecting the environment by applying appropriate treatment, there is also the possibility of making a profit by valorizing useful elements from mining waste. In order to choose the most adequate treatment, it is necessary to perform the characterization of mining waste. This paper contains a detailed characterization of the flotation tailings deposited at the Old Flotation Tailings in eastern Serbia, originating from copper ore processing. Characterization includes physico-chemical analysis, polarizing microscope analysis, X-ray Diffraction analysis (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis analysis. The obtained results indicate that the investigated flotation tailings can be used as a secondary raw material for metal recovery, in this case primarily copper (whose content is about 0.24%), gold (with a content of about 0.43 ppm) and silver (with a content of about 1.7 ppm). Considering that the content of valuable elements is quite low, it is suggested to apply hydrometallurgical treatment for their recovery.

The orientation of intra-arc crustal fault systems influences the copper budget of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids

Some of the largest magmatic-hydrothermal copper ore deposits and deposit clusters are associated with arc-oblique fault systems. Whether this structural context impacts the geochemistry of hydrothermal fluids, including their copper contents, remains unknown. Here, we investigate the copper concentration and helium isotope signature of geothermal fluids as modern analogs of hydrothermal ore deposits in the Andes of central-southern Chile. We show that fault systems broadly parallel to the regional stress field facilitate the early release of fluids from deep primitive magmas. By contrast, fault systems oblique to the regional stress field prevent the early escape of fluids and promote magmatic enrichment in copper, volatiles, and ligands, enhancing the potential to form copper deposits. We conclude that the orientation of fault systems actively influences the copper budget of ascending hydrothermal fluids, explaining the contrasting distribution of metals along distinct structures often observed in porphyry-epithermal systems and other types of magmatic-hydrothermal deposits.

A Study on the efficiency of organic activator application to process refractory hard-to-beneficiate raw materials

Polymetallic ores with complex mineralogical compositions pose significant challenges in flotation beneficiation, often resulting in suboptimal separation and recovery of valuable minerals. This study aims to analyse the effectiveness of alkyl benzene sulfonic acid (ABSA) as a frothing activator in improving the flotation performance and mineral recovery of polymetallic ore. It presents the results of flotation beneficiation experiments for polymetallic ore of complex mineralogical composition. Experiments were conducted on polymetallic ore samples using ABSA as the frothing activator in the flotation process. The performance was evaluated based on recovery rates and separation efficiency, comparing the results with standard floating frothing agents. The findings showed the highest efficiency of ABSA application for samples of mixed-type ores in increasing the recovery of gold, copper, zinc and lead in the collective concentrates of flotation beneficiation. ABSA activator promotes additional cleaning of fragments containing valuable metals from oxide films and coatings and the transfer of valuable metals' microparticles due to the organics' adsorption properties and the formation of metal-carbon bonds. Another effect of using this reagent is there was an increase in concentrate mass yield while maintaining the quality parameters. A similar effect was observed for beneficiation of copper ore with complex composition - copper recovery in the main concentrate increased. Selective flotation with the development of gold concentrate from hard-to-beneficiate polymetallic ore also showed a significant increase in gold recovery with ABSA pretreatment.

Arsenic immobilization from high-As sulfide copper ores through high-pressure leaching with ferric and sodium chloride media

The processing of high-impurity ores has become increasingly common in recent years. Enargite (Cu3AsS4) is an important source of copper, but it is notorious for its high arsenic content, posing serious environmental concerns. This study explores the potential of a high-pressure leaching system for treating high-arsenic-containing copper ores. The leaching behavior of enargite was studied to elucidate the role of ferric sulfate and NaCl in enhancing the dissolution of enargite and the fixation of As in the residue. Under optimized leaching conditions of 160 °C, 1.0 MPa, 0.1 mol/L Fe2(SO4)3, and 0.34 mol/L NaCl, excellent copper extractions (97 %) and immobilization of arsenic (98 %) was achieved. The Fe/As ratio in the feed significantly influenced arsenic removal minerals, with lower ratios of less than 1 favoring scorodite precipitation, while higher ratios (Fe/As > 1) promoted arsenic removal through sorption and co-precipitation with natrojarosite. Sodium chloride addition enhanced natrojarosite precipitation, reducing the total dissolved iron in the leachate. Arsenic attenuation onto jarosite was found to be difficult to form in the absence of NaCl and was more effective with mixed minerals (enargite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite) as opposed to only enargite. A relationship was established between Fe and free acidity in the leachate when NaCl was used, with a correlation coefficient of 0.992. Additionally, a correlation coefficient of 0.921 was obtained between final Fe and As concentrations in the leachate suggesting that As tenors can be managed by controlling free acidity. Evaluation of the environmental stability of the leach residue using the TCLP test showed an As leachability of 5.84 mg/L.

Performance comparison of laboratory scale air classifier and hydrocyclone at the same target size

The research aimed at comparing the performances of two common centrifugal type classifiers, air classifier and hydrocyclone, operated dry and wet respectively. The reason for starting the study is the possible shifting to dry processing in the future as the water has limited availability. Such comprehensive research has not been undertaken in the literature although individual assessments were completed. Within the scope, copper ore, gold ore and magnetite-calcite blends were chosen as these applications are common globally. The research commenced with the experimental tests via laboratory scale air classifier and hydrocyclone. Afterwards, size analyses and component measurements (via XRF, MLA, fire assay) were undertaken. The data was initially used in mass balancing of the experimental data to adjust the flow rates alongside with assays then Tromp curves were plotted to determine cut size, sharpness of cut, bypass parameters. Comparison of the two classifiers were completed for the same overflow target sizes. Throughout the assessments, the magnitudes of the Tromp curve parameters for the overall classification and component-based results were compared. As a result, air classifier may be alternative to hydrocyclone classification since less bypass, higher sharpness values were obtained. This study provides insights on choosing the dry or wet classification.