Oral Reading Fluency Measures Research Articles

Assessing for generalized improvements in reading comprehension by intervening to improve reading fluency

AbstractThe relationship between reading fluency and comprehension was evaluated in five 4th‐grade students. These students were identified as being at risk of not meeting yearly goals in reading fluency and comprehension based on fall benchmark assessment data. A brief intervention assessment was used to determine which intervention components would be essential to improving reading fluency across the five participants. As a result, the combination of repeated practice with performance feedback and error correction was implemented using instructional‐level reading materials twice per week for 30‐minute sessions with progress monitored weekly using AIMSweb measures of oral reading fluency and comprehension. Empirical, single‐case designs were used to evaluate the impact of the program across these five students with assessed, generalized improvements in comprehension. Results indicated increased rate of words read correctly per minute with generalized increases in comprehension for four of five participants. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Expanding the Simple View of Reading in Accounting for Reading Skills in Community College Students

The simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) proposes that listening comprehension and decoding, properly measured, can account for all of the variance in reading comprehension. We assessed the simple view in community college students. In addition to listening comprehension and decoding, we included measures of oral vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, phonological awareness, reading fluency, and verbal working memory. In combination, the measures yielded an R2 of.48, but only listening comprehension and reading fluency made independent contributions to reading comprehension. Predictors that best distinguished less skilled from average readers were phonological awareness and verbal working memory. These findings suggest a need to expand the simple view in accounting for individual differences among adult readers.

Development of an Early Hebrew Oral Reading Fluency Measure

Currently, there are no Hebrew (L2) reading assessments that have been tested to obtain evidence for reliability and validity on which to base decisions about Hebrew instruction. The authors developed a Hebrew benchmark assessment tool for first grade students modeled after Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, a standardized test of accuracy and fluency used to identify at-risk students and to monitor student progress. Results of pilot data collection (N=53) provide evidence for strong alternate form reliability for this measure, as well as evidence for content, face and criterion-related validity. Future directions for research and development are discussed.

The Relationship Between Different Measures of Oral Reading Fluency and Reading Comprehension in Second-Grade Students Who Evidence Different Oral Reading Fluency Difficulties

The purpose of this study was to examine whether different measures of oral reading fluency relate differentially to reading comprehension performance in two samples of second-grade students: (a) students who evidenced difficulties with nonsense-word oral reading fluency, real-word oral reading fluency, and oral reading fluency of connected text (ORFD), and (b) students who evidenced difficulties only with oral reading fluency of connected text (CTD). Participants (ORFD, n = 146 and CTD, n = 949) were second-grade students who were recruited for participation in different reading intervention studies. Data analyzed were from measures of nonsense-word oral reading fluency, real-word oral reading fluency, oral reading fluency of connected text, and reading comprehension that were collected at the pre-intervention time point. Correlational and path analyses indicated that real-word oral reading fluency was the strongest predictor of reading comprehension performance in both samples and across average and poor reading comprehension abilities. Results of this study indicate that real-word oral reading fluency was the strongest predictor of reading comprehension and suggest that real-word oral reading fluency may be an efficient method for identifying potential reading comprehension difficulties.

Comprehensive reading instruction for students with intellectual disabilities: Findings from the first three years of a longitudinal study

AbstractThis longitudinal experimental study investigated the reading progress of students with IQs ranging from 40 to 69 (i.e., range for students with mild or moderate mental retardation or intellectual disabilities [ID]) across at least two academic years, as well as the effectiveness of a comprehensive reading intervention for these students across the same period of time. Participants were 59 elementary students who were randomly placed into treatment and contrast groups. Students in the treatment condition received daily, comprehensive reading instruction in small groups of 1–4 students for 40–50 minutes per session across two or three academic years. Measures of phonemic awareness, phonics, word recognition, comprehension, and oral language were included. Findings indicate that students with IQs in the ID range made significant progress on multiple standardized measures of reading. Furthermore, significant differences between the treatment group and contrast group were found on several measures, including progress‐monitoring measures of phoneme segmentation, phonics, and oral reading fluency. Results demonstrate that, on average, students with ID, even those with IQs in the moderate range, learn basic reading skills given consistent, explicit, and comprehensive reading instruction across an extended period of time. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Classroom Observations and Effects of Reading Interventions for Students at Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

This study investigated the effects of small-group reading interventions, implemented within a schoolwide positive behavior support model, on elementary students with and without risk for emotional and behavior disorders. Participating schools and students were part of a larger randomized controlled group study. A subset of the larger study, four experimental and four comparison schools, participated in this current study. Participants included 117 first- through third-grade students who were identified through a systematic screening process as having reading or behavior/reading risk. Direct observation and reading performance measures yielded several important outcomes. Students receiving small-group interventions within the experimental group spent more time in small-group instruction and during that instruction were more actively engaged in reading aloud and academic responding. These differences translated into differential gains between groups on the Dynamic Indicators of Early Literacy Skills—DIBELS nonsense word fluency and oral reading fluency measures. In addition, with intensive small-group reading interventions, students with the combined behavior/reading risk were as responsive to the intervention as students with reading risk alone. No differences were recognized for student conduct or for reading outcomes on the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Reorganizing the instructional reading components: could there be a better way to design remedial reading programs to maximize middle school students with reading disabilities’ response to treatment?

The primary purpose of this study was to explore if there could be a more beneficial method in organizing the individual instructional reading components (phonological decoding, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension) within a remedial reading program to increase sensitivity to instruction for middle school students with reading disabilities (RD). Three different modules (Alternating, Integrated, and Additive) of the Reading Achievement Multi-Modular Program were implemented with 90 middle school (sixth to eighth grades) students with reading disabilities. Instruction occurred 45 min a day, 5 days a week, for 26 weeks, for approximately 97 h of remedial reading instruction. To assess gains, reading subtests of the Woodcock Johnson-III, the Gray Silent Reading Test, and Oral Reading Fluency passages were administered. Results showed that students in the Additive module outperformed students in the Alternating and Integrated modules on phonological decoding and spelling and students in the Integrated module on comprehension skills. Findings for the two oral reading fluency measures demonstrated a differential pattern of results across modules. Results are discussed in regards to the effect of the organization of each module on the responsiveness of middle school students with RD to instruction.

Gender Differences in Early Literacy: Analysis of Kindergarten through Fifth-Grade Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Probes

.Using a cross-sectional design and five Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills measures, researchers tested for gender differences in reading skills for 1,218 kindergarten through fifth-grade students. A series of two-way repeated measures analyses of variance with time of year (fall, winter, and spring) serving as the within-subjects variable and gender serving as the between-subjects variable showed girls scored significantly higher than boys on the four kindergarten measures; however, these differences were small. First-grade students were assessed on three of these four measures and there were no significant differences across boys and girls. For the oral reading fluency measure (Grades 1–5), a significant female advantage did not emerge until Grade 4 but was not significant in our Grade 5 sample. By the end of fifth grade, the difference in mean oral reading fluency scores was <1 word correct per minute. Discussion focuses on applied and theoretical implications of these findings, limitations of the study, and directions for future researchers.

Differences in the Relationship of Oral Reading Fluency and High-Stakes Measures of Reading Comprehension

The current study examined the predictive validity of oral reading fluency measures across first, second, and third grades for two reading achievement measures at the end of third grade. Oral reading fluency measures were administered to students from first grade to third. The Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills and the Stanford Achievement Test were also administered in the third grade. Oral reading fluency was a reliable predictor of student success on both measures. Data suggest that greater student growth in oral reading fluency is needed through the grade levels to ensure high probabilities of success on the nationally normed measure, as compared to what is needed for the state-normed measure. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

English and Spanish Acquisition by Hispanic Second Graders in Developmental Bilingual Programs

The authors studied a longitudinal English intervention in a 70/30 (Spanish/ English) developmental bilingual education (DBE) program ( n = 302) and compared this model with a typical-practice, 80/20, late-exit transitional bilingual education program ( n = 187) in terms of students' language and literacy acquisition from kindergarten to second grade in an urban school district in southeastern Texas. The findings revealed significant differences ( p values &lt; .05) in favor of DBE students on (a) English measures of oral language, preliteracy skills, and reading fluency and comprehension (effect sizes of .12 to .71) and (b) Spanish measures of letter name and sound, preliteracy skills, and reading comprehension (effect sizes of .19 to .38). It was concluded that quality English instruction that incorporates direct and focused instruction, context-embedded vocabulary learning, and ongoing professional training in DBE programs is much needed to promote bilingualism and biliteracy.

Use of a measure of reading comprehension to enhance prediction on the state high stakes assessment

The current study examined the diagnostic accuracy of two screening measures of risk for future difficulties in reading comprehension, as well as the degree to which adding a screening measure of reading comprehension enhanced the prediction of Oral Reading Fluency to outcomes of student reading performance on the state high stakes assessment for grades 3 through 5. Data from fall and winter assessments of the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (DORF) and 4Sight Benchmark Assessment (4Sight) measures along with outcomes on the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment (PSSA) across a total of 1000 students from 6 schools were examined using indices of diagnostic efficiency, ROC curve, and logistic regression analyses. Results showed that the addition of a measure of reading comprehension (4Sight) to DORF enhanced the decision making process for identifying students at risk for reading difficulties, especially for those students at higher elementary grades and those who achieved benchmark levels on the DORF. Although DORF alone showed a good level of prediction to the statewide assessment, the combination of the DORF plus 4Sight measures resulted consistently in the best predictive outcomes. Suggestions are made to consider alternative cut points for the DORF and 4Sight measures.

Evaluating Curriculum-Based Measurement Slope Estimates Using Data From Triannual Universal Screenings

Early identification of students in need of academic assistance results in a greater likelihood of academic success and a decrease in the likelihood that students will need continual special education services (Jenkins & O'Connor, 2002; Torgesen, 2002). Prevention is often more cost efficient, more effective, and more beneficial to students than delayed remediation. This and other observations support implementation of early screening and intervention for prevention of academic problems (President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002; Reschly, Tilly, & Grimes, 1999). The corresponding screening procedures are often referred to as either universal screenings or benchmarking. Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency (CBM-R) is one common procedure used for universal screening purposes (Deno, 2002). CBM-R was evaluated by the Reading First Assessment Panel, which concluded that there was sufficient evidence for its use in universal screening (Francis et al., 2002). Although districts can develop their own source of CBM-R passages, various commercial sets of CBM-R passages exist such as the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS; http://dibels.uoregon.edu) and AIMS-web (http://aimsweb.com). CBM-R universal screening data can be norm referenced, criterion referenced, or self-referenced. Norms can be used to evaluate the relative standing of a student's performance in comparison to peers. This is an especially useful interpretative approach, which is often used as part of universal screenings and triannual assessments, to identify students discrepant in level and rate of growth from peers. In a criterion-referenced framework, CBM-R data can be used to evaluate a student's level of achievement compared to established benchmarks of expected levels of achievement. Such comparisons are beneficial when attempting to predict performance on large-scale assessments (e.g., state tests). Finally, a student's performance on previous administrations can be used to evaluate change or growth, which is valuable for gauging the effects of instruction (i.e., response to intervention, RTI). Norm-, criterion-, and self-referenced interpretations can be used in conjunction to support early intervention and prevention of reading problems. Early intervention and prevention practices increase the probability that students at risk will meet or exceed academic expectations in the future (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2004) and demonstrate proficiency on statewide tests (Good, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 2001; Hintze & Silberglitt, 2005; Stage, 2001). Norm-referenced interpretation enables problem solving and resource allocation at the local level. School systems functioning within either a problem-solving or RTI framework must screen students to identify those individuals most likely to benefit from early intervention. Local norms are most appropriate to identify struggling readers at the individual and group level. The evaluation of student performance relative to classroom, local, and district norms enables schools to consider local variables external to the child (e.g., quality of the curriculum and instruction). Academic problems within problem-solving and RTI models are defined by the discrepancy between what is typically achieved by a student's peer group (i.e., what is expected) and what is achieved by an individual student or group (i.e., what is observed). CBM-R is often used to define problems in this manner. Within Fuchs and Fuchs' (1998) RTI dual-discrepancy model, CBM-R is a primary dependent variable used to define problems and evaluate response to instruction. CBM-R data are often used to establish the expected level of reading achievement at specific points in the academic year. Triannual CBM-R universal screening data are also used to establish the expected rate of reading growth across the year (Deno, Fuchs, Marston, & Shin, 2001). CBM-R universal screening data are used to determine which students are discrepant in their level of reading achievement and rate of academic growth. …

Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5: An Experimental Study

The effects of a voluntary summer reading intervention with teacher and parent scaffolding were investigated in an experimental study. A total of 24 teachers and 400 children in Grades 3, 4, and 5 were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: control, books only, books with oral reading scaffolding, and books with oral reading and comprehension scaffolding. Books were matched to children's reading levels and interests. Children were pre- and posttested on measures of oral reading fluency (DIBELS) and silent reading ability (Iowa Test of Basic Skills [ITBS]). Results showed that children in the books with oral reading and comprehension scaffolding condition scored significantly higher on the ITBS posttest than children in the control condition. In addition, children in the two scaffolding conditions combined scored higher on the ITBS posttest than children in the control and books only conditions combined. Practical implications for summer voluntary reading interventions are discussed.

Accuracy of the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency Measure for Predicting Third Grade Reading Comprehension Outcomes

We evaluated the validity of DIBELS ( Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills) ORF ( Oral Reading Fluency) for predicting performance on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT-SSS) and Stanford Achievement Test (SAT-10) reading comprehension measures. The usefulness of previously established ORF risk-level cutoffs [Good, R.H., Simmons, D.C., and Kame’enui, E.J. (2001). The importance and decision-making utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high-stakes outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 257–288.] for third grade students were evaluated on calibration ( n S1 = 16,539) and cross-validation ( n S2 = 16,908) samples representative of Florida's Reading First population. The strongest correlations were the third (February/March) administration of ORF with both FCAT-SSS and SAT-10 ( r S = .70–.71), when the three tests were administered concurrently. Recalibrated ORF risk-level cut scores derived from ROC (receiver-operating characteristic) curve analyses produced more accurate identification of true positives than previously established benchmarks. The recalibrated risk-level cut scores predict performance on the FCAT-SSS equally well for students from different socio-economic, language, and race/ethnicity categories.

Comparing comprehension following silent and aloud reading across elementary and secondary students: Implication for curriculum-based measurement.

In the current study, 42 secondary students (10th, 11th, and 12th grade students) and 51 elementary students (4th and 5th grade students) read 400 word passages silently and aloud. During aloud reading, words correct per minute (WCPM) were recorded. After reading each passage, students answered 10 multiple-choice comprehension questions. Results showed comprehension was significantly higher when students read passages aloud, as opposed to silently. No interaction was found between comprehension and grade level (elementary versus secondary). Discussion is focused on theories of reading comprehension and applied implications for assessing comprehension following the administration of Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) reading probes. Keywords: Reading comprehension, silent reading, oral reading, words correct per minute, curriculumbased measurement ********** Reading skill deficit are prevalent, common in most student refereed for special education services, and can hinder learning, skill development, and success across vocational, academic, and daily living tasks (Daly, Chafouleas, & Skinner, 2005; Lentz, 1998; National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2005; Winn, Skinner, Oliver, Hale, & Ziegler, in press). Although a variety of theories and procedures have been developed to remedy reading skill deficits, our science has not developed to the point where we can be assured that any specific intervention will remedy reading skill deficits for specific students. Thus, researchers and educators have developed various procedures and systems that allow educators to quickly assess the effects of various reading interventions on students reading skill development (i.e., progress monitoring or measuring responsiveness to intervention, see Fletcher, Coulter, Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004). Words Correct per Minute There are several common characteristics with various reading skill development progress monitoring systems. One is that they employ brief and sensitive measures that allow for frequent assessment of skill development. With respect to reading skills, one measure that is included in most systems is words read correctly per minute (WCPM). This measure which Deno and Mirkin's (1977) described in their curriculum-based measurement (CBM) system for progress and performance monitoring, is also used in the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS, Good & Kaminski, 2002) and AIMSweb (AIMSweb Progress Monitoring and Response to Intervention System, 2006) systems. To collect WCPM data, students are asked to read aloud, often for 1 minute, as the examiner scores errors. After students have finished reading aloud the examiner calculates both words correct per minute (WCPM) and errors per minute (Deno & Mirkin, 1977; Shapiro, 2004). WCPM is a measure of oral or aloud reading fluency or speed of accurate aloud reading. Many researchers have investigated the psychometric properties of WCPM and found that it is a valid (concurrent, construct, and criterion related validity), reliable, and sensitive measure of general reading skill development (Deno, Mirkin, & Chiang, 1982; Espin & Foegen, 1996; Fuchs & Deno 1991; Fuchs, Fuchs, and Maxwell, 1988; Hintze, Shapiro, Conte, & Basile, 1997). Although, WCPM has been shown to positively correlate with standardized norm-referenced measures of reading comprehension, (Deno et al., 1982; Fuchs & Deno, 1992; Fuchs et al., 1988; Marston, 1989; Shinn et al., 1992), because WCPM does not directly assess reading comprehension educators and research have expressed concerns about the face validity of the measure (Potter & Wamre, 1990; Skinner, Neddenriep, Bradley-Klug, & Ziemann, 2002). This limitation may be important as the primary function, goal, or purpose of reading is comprehension (2) (Rowell, 1976; Salasoo, 1986; Sindelar & Stoddard, 1991; Skinner, 1998). Thus, some may be concerned that WC/M will not detect comprehension deficits in students who can read aloud accurately and rapidly, but fail to comprehend what they are reading (Marston, 1989). …

Modeling the Relationship Between Oral Reading Fluency and Performance on a Statewide Reading Test

This study examined the relationship between oral reading fluency and performance on a statewide reading test across Grades 3, 4, and 5. A curriculum-based measure of oral reading fluency was administered to 3rd, 4th, and 5th graders who participated in the reading test from the Colorado Student Assessment Program (CSAP). A cross-sectional design with individuals nested within classrooms and classrooms nested within grade levels was used. Hierarchical linear modeling was employed to analyze the relationships. Significant correlations were found between oral reading fluency and the CSAP for all 3 grades. The measure of oral reading fluency added unique information to predicting CSAP performance over and above the predictability of previous year CSAP testing. There was significant variation at the individual classroom level in the relationship between oral reading fluency and CSAP performance. Diagnostic efficiency statistics were used with cut scores to predict whether students would pass or fail the CSAP.

Oral Reading Fluency Norms: A Valuable Assessment Tool for Reading Teachers

In 1992, the authors collaborated to develop a set of norms for oral reading fluency for grades 2–5. Since then, interest in and awareness of fluency has greatly increased, and Hasbrouck and Tindal have collaborated further to compile an updated and expanded set of norms for grades 1–8.This article discusses the application of these norms to three important assessment activities related to improving students' reading achievement: Screening students for possible reading problems Diagnosing deficits in students' fluency Monitoring the progress of students receiving supplementary instruction or intensive intervention in reading An overview of the history and purpose for developing measures of oral reading fluency is also presented.

Short-Term Estimates of Growth Using Curriculum-Based Measurement of Oral Reading Fluency: Estimating Standard Error of the Slope to Construct Confidence Intervals

Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency (CBM-R) is an established procedure used to index the level and trend of student growth. A substantial literature base exists regarding best practices in the administration and interpretation of CBM-R; however, research has yet to adequately address the potential influence of measurement error. This study extends results of Hintze and Christ (2004) by incorporating research-based estimates of the standard error of the estimate (SEE) to generate likely magnitudes for the standard error of the slope (SEb) across a variety of progress monitoring durations and measurement conditions. Fourteen progress monitoring durations (2-15 weeks) and nine levels of SEE (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18) were used to derive SEb. The outcomes are discussed in relation to assessment practices, such as selecting optimal progress monitoring durations to reduce measurement error. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Short-Term Estimates of Growth Using Curriculum-Based Measurement of Oral Reading Fluency: Estimating Standard Error of the Slope to Construct Confidence Intervals

The recently published fourth edition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) represents a considerable departure from previous versions of the scale. The structure of the instrument has changed, and some subtests have been added and others deleted. The technical manual for the WISC-IV provided evidence supporting this new structure, but questions about consistency of measurement across ages and the nature of the constructs measured by the test remain. This research was designed to determine whether the WISC-IV measures the same constructs across its 11-year age span and to explicate the nature of those constructs. The results suggest that the WISC-IV indeed measures consistent constructs across ages. The scoring structure of the test was not supported in these analyses, however. Comparison of theory-derived alternative models suggests a model more closely aligned with Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory provides a better fit to the WISC-IV standardization data than does the existing WISC-IV structure. In particular, it appears that the WISC-IV measures crystallized ability (Gc), visual processing (Gv), fluid reasoning (Gf), short-term memory (Gsm), and processing speed (Gs); some abilities are well measured, others are not. We recommend that users regroup the Perceptual Reasoning tests, and Arithmetic, to better reflect the constructs measured by the WISC-IV. Specific suggestions are also provided for interpretation of WISC-IV scores.

‘Me Amo Leer’ Reading Experiences in a Central Illinois Summer Migrant Education Programme

This paper describes the assessment and instructional strategies used in a migrant education programme that had positive academic outcomes for a group of 11 eight-to 12-year-old Spanish/English-speaking students of Mexican descent. Students attended this four-week summer programme, jointly sponsored by the University of Illinois and the local public school district, while older siblings and parents harvested crops in the central Illinois region. Curriculum-based measures of students' oral reading fluency and comprehension, along with strategies for teaching reading and writing allowed the teacher to tailor instruction. The article provides useful suggestions for teachers working with students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.