Oral Drug Delivery Vehicles Research Articles

A review on electrospun nanofibers for oral drug delivery

Nowadays, polymer nanofibers have gained attention due to remarkable characteristics such as high porosity and large surface area to volume ratio. Among their fabrication methods, electrospinning technique has been attracted as a simple and reproducible approach. It is a versatile, simple and cost-effective technique for the production of continuous nanofibers with acceptable characteristics such as high porosity, high surface area to volume ratio, high loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency, delivery of multiple drugs, and enhancement of drug solubility. Due to these properties electrospun nanofibers have been extensively used for different biomedical applications including wound dressing, tissue engineering, enzyme immobilization, artificial organs, and drug delivery. Different synthetic and natural polymers have been successfully electrospun into ultrafine fibers. Using electrospun nanofibers as vehicles for oral drug delivery has been investigated in different release manners- fast, biphasic or sustained release. This article presents a review on application of electrospinning technique in oral drug delivery.

Diblock Terpolymers Are Tunable and pH Responsive Vehicles To Increase Hydrophobic Drug Solubility for Oral Administration.

Synthetic polymers offer tunable platforms to create new oral drug delivery vehicles (excipients) to increase solubility, supersaturation maintenance, and bioavailability of poorly aqueous soluble pharmaceutical candidates. Five well-defined diblock terpolymers were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (RAFT) and consist of a first block of either poly(ethylene-alt-propylene) (PEP), poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm), or poly(N,N-diethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDEAEMA) and a second hydrophilic block consisting of a gradient copolymer of N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMA) and 2-methacrylamidotrehalose (MAT). This family of diblock terpolymers offers hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or H-bonding functionalities to serve as noncovalent sites of drug binding. Drug-polymer spray dried dispersions (SDDs) were created with a model drug, probucol, and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). These studies revealed that probucol crystallinity decreased with increasing H-bonding sites available in the polymer. The PNIPAm-b-P(DMA-grad-MAT) systems revealed the best performance at pH 6.5, where immediate probucol release and effective maintenance of 100% supersaturation was found, which is important for facilitating drug solubility in more neutral conditions (intestinal environment). However, the PDEAEMA-b-P(DMA-grad-MAT) system revealed poor probucol dissolution at pH 6.5 and 5.1. Alternatively, at an acidic pH of 3.1, a rapid and high dissolution profile and effective supersaturation maintenance of up to 90% of the drug was found, which could be useful for triggering drug release in acidic environments (stomach). The PEP-b-P(DMA-grad-MAT) system showed poor performance (only ∼20% of drug solubility at pH 6.5), which was attributed to the low solubility of the polymers in the dissolution media. This work demonstrates the utility of diblock terpolymers as a potential new excipient platform to optimize design parameters for triggered release and solubilizing hydrophobic drug candidates for oral delivery.

Photo-cross-linked biodegradable hydrogels based on n-arm-poly(ethylene glycol), poly(ε-caprolactone) and/or methacrylic acid for controlled drug release.

In this paper, a novel kind of photo-cross-linked biodegradable hydrogels based on n-arm-poly(ethylene glycol) ( n = 2, 3, and 4) and poly(ɛ-caprolactone) was prepared by ultraviolet-initiated free radical polymerization. The resulting n-arm-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ɛ-caprolactone) and n-arm-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ɛ-caprolactone) acrylate (n-arm-PEG-PCL-AC, macromer) were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance and fourier transform infrared spectra. The influences of arm numbers and concentration of macromer on the properties of hydrogel were researched systematically, and the results showed that the gelation time, equilibrium swelling ratio, invitro degradation, and drug release rate decreased with the increase of arm numbers and concentration of macromer. The degradation and drug release rate could be controlled by varying the cross-linking density of hydrogel, indicating a potential application as controlled drug delivery system. Cytotoxicity test of hydrogel extracts was conducted using L929 mouse fibroblasts, and the relative growth rate exceeded 75% (cytotoxicity type: class 1) after incubation for 24 h, showing excellent cytocompatibility. In addition, the paper presented a pH-sensitive hydrogel (G4pH) based on 4-arm-PEG-PCL-AC and acrylic acid, and the influences of pH value on swelling behaviors and invitro drug release of the pH-sensitive hydrogel were examined. The hydrogels shrank under acidic condition and would swell in neutral or basic medium. The pH-dependent drug release behaviors indicated a promising application of the materials as oral drug delivery vehicles.

Polymeric Biomaterial and Lipid Based Nanoparticles for Oral Drug Delivery.

Oral drug delivery is widespread owing to its non-invasive nature which complements high patient compliance. However, the drug administration via oral route is quite challenging due to the presence of the biochemical barriers which hinders the uptake as well as access to blood stream. Apart from that, stability, poor solubility and bioavailability of administered drug via the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are also exigent. Till now various oral formulations were developed which releases the drug in a timely manner but lacks appropriate therapeutic concentration. Recently nanoparticles based drug delivery system has emerged as prominent strategy for optimizing the oral drug delivery and maximizing the treatment efficiency. Besides, different strategic polymeric nanoparticles are engineered for interaction both at extracellular and intracellular levels with gastrointestinal mucosa. The review article focuses on the polymeric and lipid based various nanocarriers that have been widely studied for the enhanced oral drug delivery of different therapeutic molecules and addresses recent progress of biocompatible and biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles approach for its improvement. The progress of numerous oral nanoparticulate drug delivery vehicles will be immensely helpful to improve therapeutic efficacy with reduced adverse side effects. Unlike other forms of administration, it will have better patient compliance and soothing effect. The oral drug delivery will certainly play a pivotal role soon in expanding the clinical repertoire and applications.

Interactions of mussel-inspired polymeric nanoparticles with gastric mucin: Implications for gastro-retentive drug delivery

Mussel-inspired polydopamine (pD) coatings have several unique characteristics such as durability, versatility, and robustness. In this study, we have designed pD-coated nanoparticles (NPs) of methoxy polyethylene glycol-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL@pD) as prospective nanoscale mucoadhesive platforms for gastro-retentive drug delivery. Successful pD coating on the NPs was confirmed by Transmission Electron Microscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy. Mucoadhesion of pD-coated NPs was investigated in vitro using commercially available mucin under stomach lumen-mimetic conditions. Mucin-NP interactions were monitored by dynamic light scattering, which showed a significant change in particle size distribution of pD-coated NPs at mucin/NP ratios of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:4w/w. Turbidity measurements indicated the formation of large mucin-NP aggregates causing a significant increase in turbidity at mucin/NP ratios of 2:1 and 4:1w/w. pD-coated NPs exhibited a significantly higher mucin adsorption ability compared to uncoated NPs at mucin/NP ratios of 1:4, 1:2, and 1:1w/w. Zeta potential measurements demonstrated that mucin-pD-coated NP interactions were not electrostatic in nature. An ex vivo wash-off test conducted using excised sheep stomach revealed that 78% of pD-coated NPs remained attached to the mucosa after 8h of incubation, compared to only 33% of uncoated NPs. In vitro release of rifampicin, used as a model drug, showed a similar controlled release profile from both pD-coated and uncoated NPs. Our results serve to expand the versatility of mussel-inspired coatings to the design of mucoadhesive nanoscale vehicles for oral drug delivery.

Curcumin Encapsulated in Milk Exosomes Resists Human Digestion and Possesses Enhanced Intestinal Permeability in Vitro.

Exosomes, the extracellular secretary nano-vesicles, act as carriers of biomolecules to the target cells. They exhibit several attributes of an efficient drug delivery system. Curcumin, despite having numerous bioactive and therapeutic properties, has limited pharmaceutical use due to its poor water solubility, stability, and low systemic bioavailability. Hence, this study aims to enhance the therapeutic potential of curcumin, a model hydrophobic drug, by its encapsulation into milk exosomes. In the present study, we investigated the stability of free curcumin and exosomal curcumin in PBS and in vitro digestive processes. Additionally, their uptake and trans-epithelial transport were studied on Caco-2 cells. Curcumin in milk exosomes had higher stability in PBS, sustained harsh digestive processes, and crossed the intestinal barrier than free curcumin. In conclusion, the encapsulation of curcumin into the exosomes enhances its stability, solubility, and bioavailability. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that milk exosomes act as stable oral drug delivery vehicles.

Transformation of Probiotic Yeast and Their Recovery from Gastrointestinal Immune Tissues Following Oral Gavage in Mice

Development of recombinant oral therapy would allow for more direct targeting of the mucosal immune system and improve the ability to combat gastrointestinal disorders. Adapting probiotic yeast in particular for this approach carries several advantages. These strains have not only the potential to synthesize a wide variety of complex heterologous proteins but are also capable of surviving and protecting those proteins during transit through the intestine. Critically, however, this approach requires expertise in many diverse laboratory techniques not typically used in tandem. Furthermore, although individual protocols for yeast transformation are well characterized for commonly used laboratory strains, emphasis is placed here on alternative approaches and the importance of optimizing transformation for less well characterized probiotic strains. Detailing these methods will help facilitate discussion as to the best approaches for testing probiotic yeast as oral drug delivery vehicles and indeed serve to advance the development of this novel strategy for gastrointestinal therapy.

Transformation of Probiotic Yeast and Their Recovery from Gastrointestinal Immune Tissues Following Oral Gavage in Mice.

Development of recombinant oral therapy would allow for more direct targeting of the mucosal immune system and improve the ability to combat gastrointestinal disorders. Adapting probiotic yeast in particular for this approach carries several advantages. These strains have not only the potential to synthesize a wide variety of complex heterologous proteins but are also capable of surviving and protecting those proteins during transit through the intestine. Critically, however, this approach requires expertise in many diverse laboratory techniques not typically used in tandem. Furthermore, although individual protocols for yeast transformation are well characterized for commonly used laboratory strains, emphasis is placed here on alternative approaches and the importance of optimizing transformation for less well characterized probiotic strains. Detailing these methods will help facilitate discussion as to the best approaches for testing probiotic yeast as oral drug delivery vehicles and indeed serve to advance the development of this novel strategy for gastrointestinal therapy.

Optimization and development of Nisoldipine nano-bioenhancers by novel orthogonal array (L27 array)

Our key objective was an attempt to apply a novel statistical method intended for designing, optimizing and developing Nisoldipine nano-bioenhancers using Taguchi (3×3=L27) design. This quality improvement orthogonal design array (L27) was used as a mathematical tool to find and study the response prediction of independent as well as significant variables (A=poly-concentration; B=bio-enhancer and C=ratio of organic medium). The array orthogonal (3×3=L27) at each level/spaces has been studied with respect to responses changeable (dependent factors); entrapment enhancement (X; evaluated using particle size; Y). All through experimentally performed runs, the results showed independent variables effect individually or simultaneously on changeable (dependent) variables. It also predicted significant variable via its “better to best” optimized spaces (independent level) and would be considered as novel statistically advanced oral drug delivery vehicle for anti-hypertensive agents.

Facile large-scale preparation of mesoporous silica microspheres with the assistance of sucrose and their drug loading and releasing properties

Mesoporous silica microspheres (MSMs) with a pore-size larger than 10nm and a large pore-volume have attracted considerable attention for their application in delivering poorly water-soluble drugs. Here we developed a simple method for large-scale synthesis of MSMs using sodium silicate as silica precursor. The novelty of this approach lies in the use of sucrose solution to achieve large size and volume of nanopores. The highest values of pore size and pore volume are 13.2nm and 1.97cm3/g, respectively. Importantly, the method is reliable and easily upscalable. The blank and drug-loaded MSMs were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). Ibuprofen and resveratrol were successfully loaded into the nanopores of MSMs in amorphous and nanocrystalline form and showed high drug-loadings and enhanced dissolution rates. This kind of MSMs appears to be a promising candidate as a new oral drug delivery vehicle providing a rapid drug release.

Potential application of Non Aqueous Emulsion for drug delivery

Conventional emulsions are heterogeneous system in which one immiscible liquid is dispersed as droplets in another liquid. That may be water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions. However emulsion can be formulated waterless or without an aqueous phase to produce anhydrous or non-aqueous or oil-in-oil emulsions may be used as reservoirs to deliver lipophilic or hydrolytically unstable drugs, could be considered as depot formulations for sustained release drug delivery. Such systems, presence of water to be avoided. Some drugs are unstable or not soluble in water, formulation of such drug for oral administration has more difficult. Oral drug delivery vehicles must be capable of maintaining sufficient drug concentration in a bioavailable form that will enable expected absorption and biological activity. Such drug delivery vehicles must also be capable of maintaining the drug in its dissolved state and maintain stability of drug. This can be achieved by formulating the non aqueous emulsion. Most important factor considering formulation of stable anhydrous emulsion for oral delivery is concentration of surfactant. At high surfactant concentration may inhibit lipolysis and is disadvantageous to the intestinal mucous and has potential of causing local irritation side effects. So there is a need for such vehicle that will not comprise high and significant portion of surfactants that are irritating to the gastro intestinal mucous.

Bacterial cellulose/acrylamide pH-sensitive smart hydrogel: development, characterization, and toxicity studies in ICR mice model.

The objective of this study is to synthesize and evaluate acute toxicity of the bacterial cellulose (BC)/acrylamide (Am) hydrogels as noncytotoxic and biocompatible oral drug delivery vehicles. A novel series of solubilized BC/Am hydrogels were synthesized using a microwave irradiation method. The hydrogels were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), swelling ratio, porosity, drug release, and in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility experiments. FTIR spectra revealed that the BC crystallinity and gel fraction decreased as the NaOH concentration increased from 2% to 10% w/v, whereas the optical transparency, pH sensitivity, and porosity were enhanced with increasing alkali concentration. Theophylline was used as a model drug for drug loading and release studies. The percentage of drug released was higher at pH 7.4 compared to pH 1.5. In vitro cytotoxicity and hemolytic tests indicated that the BC/Am hydrogel is noncytotoxic and hemocompatible. Results of acute oral toxicity tests on ICR mice suggested that the hydrogels are nontoxic up to 2000 mg/kg when administered orally, as no toxic response or histopathological changes were observed in comparison to control mice. The results of this study demonstrated that the pH-sensitive smart hydrogel makes it a possible safe carrier for oral drug delivery.

Montmorillonite-PLGA nanocomposites as an oral extended drug delivery vehicle for venlafaxine hydrochloride

The objective of the present study is to develop montmorillonite (Mt) based PLGA nanocomposites for oral and controlled release carrier for an antidepressant drug, venlafaxine hydrochloride (VF). VF loaded CPN were prepared using double emulsion solvent evaporation technique. The synthesized CPN were compared with respect to morphology, particle size, physical status of VF and Mt and in vitro drug release to the corresponding biodegradable PLGA nanoparticles. Mt based VF-PLGA nanocomposites suggest the possibility of designing the oral and controlled release formulations to minimize the drug administration frequency and the occurrence of side effect thereby increasing the effectiveness of drug and hence improving patient compliance.

Investigation of pH-sensitive galactopyranoside glycol hydrogels as effective vehicles for oral drug delivery

Abstract High-loading-capacity pH-sensitive glycolhydrogels were developed using allyl α- D -galactopyranosideas a biodegradable and biocompatible carbohydrate. Thesenew pH-sensitive glycol polymers were obtained through thefree-radical polymerization of methacrylic acid and allyl α- D -galactopyranoside using 1,6-hexanediol diacrylate and 1,6-hexanediol propoxylate diacrylate as crosslinker. The novelsugar-bearing galactopyranoside-based hydrogels were ana-lyzed to test their hydrolytic behavior in vitro, consideringtheir potential application as drug delivery systems.Equilibrium swelling studies were carried out in enzyme-free simulated gastric and intestinal fluids (SGF and SIF;pH 8 and pH 1, respectively). A model drug, olsalazine (anazo derivative of 5-aminosalicylic acid), was entrapped inthese gels, and their in vitro release profiles were establishedseparately in SGF and SIF at 37 °C. The swelling and drugrelease profiles revealed that the amount of drug released andswelling of the hydrogels depended on the methacrylic acidcontent and the crosslinker type and content.Keywords Glycolhydrogel .Oraldrugdelivery .Methacrylicacid(MAA) .Allylα-

Microfluidics Fabrication of Monodisperse Biocompatible Phospholipid Vesicles for Encapsulation and Delivery of Hydrophilic Drug or Active Compound

We encapsulate the hydrophilic anti-cancer drug doxurubicin hydrochloride (DOX) with about 94% drug encapsulation efficiency, either alone or with nanomagnetite, in monodisperse biocompatible phospholipid vesicles. Glass capillary microfluidics is used to generate monodisperse water in oil in water (w/o/w) double-emulsion templates with a core-shell structure by using a mixture of liquid unsaturated phospholipids and powdered saturated phospholipid. This combination would overcome the low transition temperature of unsaturated powdered phospholipid and the solubility limitation of saturated phospholipid, as well as improving the fabrication of stable monodisperse phospholipid vesicles. The double-emulsion droplet is controlled from 50 to 200 μm according to different flow rates, and the final phospholipid vesicles are retained after a solvent removal step by dewetting. DOX-loaded phospholipid vesicles show sustained release compared with free DOX water solution. The in vitro cell viability of 100 μg/mL phospholipid vesicles on HeLa or MCF-7 cells after 24 h incubation at 310 K is above 90%, confirming the excellent biocompatibility of the phospholipid vesicles. These biocompatible phospholipid vesicles are promising oral drug delivery vehicles for biomedical applications and magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents for biomedical diagnosis.

Intracellular Ca2+ Release Mediates Cationic but Not Anionic Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) Dendrimer-Induced Tight Junction Modulation

Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers show great promise for utilization as oral drug delivery vehicles. These polymers are capable of traversing epithelial barriers, and have been shown to translocate by both transcellular and paracellular routes. While many proof-of-concept studies have shown that PAMAM dendrimers improve intestinal transport, little information exists on the mechanisms of paracellular transport, specifically dendrimer-induced tight junction modulation. Using anionic G3.5 and cationic G4 PAMAM dendrimers with known absorption enhancers, we investigated tight junction modulation in Caco-2 monolayers by visualization and mannitol permeability and compared dendrimer-mediated tight junction modulation to that of established permeation enhancers. [(14)C]-Mannitol permeability in the presence and absence of phospholipase C-dependent signaling pathway inhibitors was also examined and indicated that this pathway may mediate dendrimer-induced changes in permeability. Differences between G3.5 and G4 in tight junction protein staining and permeability with inhibitors were evident, suggesting divergent mechanisms were responsible for tight junction modulation. These dissimilarities are further intimated by the intracellular calcium release caused by G4 but not G3.5. Based on our results, it is apparent that the underlying mechanisms of dendrimer permeability are complex, and the complexities are likely a result of the density and sign of the surface charges of PAMAM dendrimers. The results of this study will have implications on the future use of PAMAM dendrimers for oral drug delivery.

Highly ordered mesoporous carbon nanomatrix as a new approach to improve the oral absorption of the water-insoluble drug, simvastatin

Three different kinds of highly ordered mesoporous carbon (HMC) matrices with different morphologies (hexagonal, spherical and fibrous), particle sizes (700nm, 400–900nm and 1–4μm) and pore diameters were compared as drug carriers for a model drug, simvastatin (SIM). The physicochemical properties of the SIM-loaded composites were studied using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), specific surface area analysis, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), HPLC, solubility measurement and dissolution testing. Furthermore, the oral bioavailability of SIM-loaded SHMC (spherical HMC nanomatrix) in beagle dogs was compared with that of the reference formulation (Zocor®). The results obtained showed that SIM molecules are encapsulated in a noncrystalline state due to geometric confinement in the nanopores of HMC. In vitro dissolution testing showed that the dissolution rate of SIM released from monodispersed SHMC was significantly faster compared with that of crystalline SIM and other SIM-loaded composites. In addition, in vivo bioavailability study demonstrated that the relative bioavailability of SIM and SIM β-hydroxy acid (an active metabolite of SIM) for SIM-loaded SHMC formulation was 138.42% and 163.55%, respectively. In conclusion, monodispersed SHMC appear to be a more promising candidate as a new oral drug delivery vehicle providing a rapid drug release and enhanced oral bioavailability.

Surfactants: Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Aspects

Surfactants are amphipathic substances with lyophobic and lyophilic groups and are critical components in pharmaceutical products. Surfactants have several uses in pharmaceuticals, i) for solubilisation of hydrophobic drugs in aqueous media, ii) as components of emulsions ,iii) surfactant self-assembly vehicles for oral and transdermal drug delivery, iv) as plasticizers in semisolid delivery systems, and v) as agents to improve drug absorption and penetration. Non-ionic surfactants such as ethers of fatty alcohols are most commonly used in pharmaceuticals. Cationic surfactants are capable of exerting antibacterial properties by disrupting bacterial cell membranes. In pharmaceutical processing, phospholipid lecithin, bile salts, certain fatty acids and their derivatives have become indispensable since they afford a uniquely effective and eficient mechanism of drug carriage by solubilising the drugs of fatty origin. The antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities make biosurfactants relevant molecules for applications in combating many diseases and as therapeutic agents. Biosurfactants have the potential for use as major immunomodulatory molecules, as anti-adhesive biological coating for biomaterials, in vaccines and gene therapy, and they may be incorporated into probiotic preparations to combat urogenetical tract infections and pulmonary immunotherapy. Gemini surfactants are effective potential transfection agents for non-viral gene therapy. Ionic liquids act as secondary surfactants and the use of surfactant/ionic liquid systems should be explored to build speciic properties in the organized medium, and to explore pharmaceutical applications of traditional, biosurfactant and Gemini surfactants.

Biosurfactants: A New Pharmaceutical Additive for Solubility Enhancement and Pharmaceutical Development

Biosurfactants are structurally diverse group of surface-active substances produced by microorganisms. At present, biosurfactants have gained importance in the pharmaceutical, biomedical, cosmetic and food industry, with a high added value, are still developing. Surfactants have numerous uses in pharmaceuticals, for solubilization of hydrophobic drugs in aqueous media, as components of emulsion or surfactant self-assembly vehicles for oral and transdermal drug delivery, as plasticizers in semisolid delivery systems, and agents to improve drug absorption and as penetration enhancer. Many pharmaceuticalgrade surfactants consist of saccharide- or polyol-fatty acid esters or fatty alcohol ethers that are biosurfactant. This article describes classical and new biosurfactants’ producing bacteria along with their significant role as pharmaceutical additives in development of pharmaceuticals and to encourage its use in solubility or bioavailability enhancement of poorly soluble drugs.

Lipid-based liquid crystalline nanoparticles as oral drug delivery vehicles for poorly water-soluble drugs: cellular interaction and in vivo absorption

BackgroundLipid-based liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) have attracted growing interest as novel drug-delivery systems for improving the bioavailability of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. However, their cellular interaction and in vivo behavior have not been fully developed and characterized.MethodsIn this study, self-assembled LCNPs prepared from soy phosphatidylcholine and glycerol dioleate were developed as a platform for oral delivery of paclitaxel. The particle size of empty LCNPs and paclitaxel-loaded LCNPs was around 80 nm. The phase behavior of the liquid crystalline matrix was characterized using crossed polarized light microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering, and showed both reversed cubic and hexagonal phase in the liquid crystalline matrix. Transmission electron microscopy and cryofield emission scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed an inner winding water channel in LCNPs and a “ ball-like”/“hexagonal” morphology.ResultsCellular uptake of LCNPs in Caco-2 cells was found to be concentration-dependent and time-dependent, with involvement of both clathrin and caveolae/lipid raft-mediated endocytosis. Under confocal laser scanning microscopy, soy phosphatidylcholine was observed to segregate from the internalized LCNPs and to fuse with the cell membrane. An in vivo pharmacokinetic study showed that the oral bioavailability of paclitaxel-loaded LCNPs (13.16%) was 2.1 times that of Taxol® (the commercial formulation of paclitaxel, 6.39%).ConclusionThe findings of this study suggest that this LCNP delivery system may be a promising candidate for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble agents.