Oral Contraceptive Group Research Articles

The Effect of the Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraceptives on Acute Responses and Chronic Adaptations to Resistance Training: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Resistance training is well known to increase strength and lean body mass, and plays a key role in many female athletic and recreational training programs. Most females train throughout their reproductive years when they are exposed to continuously changing female steroid hormone profiles due to the menstrual cycle or contraceptive use. Therefore, it is important to focus on how female hormones may affect resistance training responses. The aim of this systematic review is to identify and critically appraise current studies on the effect of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives on responses to resistance training. The electronic databases Embase, PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the menstrual cycle phase or oral contraceptive cycle on resistance training responses were included. Studies were also included if they compared resistance training responses between the natural menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive use, or if resistance training was adapted to the menstrual cycle phase or oral contraceptive phase. Studies were critically appraised with the McMasters Universities Critical Review Form for Quantitative Studies and relevant data were extracted. Of 2007 articles found, 17 studies met the criteria and were included in this systematic review. The 17 included studies had a total of 418 participants with an age range of 18-38years. One of the 17 studies found no significant differences in acute responses to a resistance training session over the natural menstrual cycle, while four studies did find changes. When assessing the differences in acute responses between the oral contraceptive and menstrual cycle groups, two studies reported oral contraceptives to have a positive influence, whilst four studies reported that oral contraceptive users had a delayed recovery, higher levels of markers of muscle damage, or both. For the responses to a resistance training program, three studies reported follicular phase-based training to be superior to luteal phase-based training or regular training, while one study reported no differences. In addition, one study reported no differences in strength development between oral contraceptive and menstrual cycle groups. One further study reported a greater increase in type I muscle fibre area and a trend toward a greater increase in muscle mass within low-androgenic oral contraceptive users compared with participants not taking hormonal contraceptives. Finally, one study investigated androgenicity of oral contraceptives and showed greater strength developments with high androgenic compared with anti-androgenic oral contraceptive use. The reviewed articles reported conflicting findings, and were often limited by small participant numbers and methodological issues, but do appear to suggest female hormones may affect resistance training responses. The findings of this review highlight the need for further experimental studies on the effects of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives on acute and chronic responses to resistance training.

Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone)

IntroductionPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder affecting 5–10% of women of reproductive age. It is characterized by chronic anovulation leading to menstrual disorders, and increased infertility. The syndrome can also manifest as hirsutism and acne.Aim of the studyThe aim of the study was to compare, over a duration of 6 months, the effects of drospirenone (DRSP) versus chlormadinone acetate (CMA) containing oral contraceptives (OCs) on clinical, hormonal, and metabolic parameters in 120 PCOS women.Materials and methods120 women with the diagnosis of PCOS according to the Rotterdam 2003 criteria were recruited to the study. All patients were divided to two treatment groups of OCs, containing: 3 mg DRSP/30 mcg EE (ethinylestradiol) (60 patients) and 2 mg CMA/30 mcg EE (60 patients). Clinical parameters such as hirsutismus and acne were evaluated. Metabolic parameters such as serum insulin, glucose concentration, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressures were also measured. Among hormonal parameters, serum estradiol, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, prolactin, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and free thyroxine were measured.ResultsThe use of both DRSP- or CMA-containing OCs provided similar positive therapeutic effects with regard to clinical, metabolic, and hormonal parameters. Among clinical parameters, like hirsutismus, after 6 months of continuous OC treatment, a statistically significant improvement was observed in both groups: DRSP (p < 0.0001) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.0001). In addition, significant improvement was showed according to acne lesions both after DRSP (p < 0.0001) and CMA treatments (p < 0.0001). Among glucose, insulin levels and HOMA-IR, there were statistically significant higher levels in both groups after DRSP (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.05) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.02, p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001). Hormonal parameters such as LH, FSH, prolactin, testosterone and DHEA-S were statistically significant lower in both groups after DRSP (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.01, p < 0,002, and p < 0.0001) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.04, p < 0.002, and p < 0.0001).ConclusionsFurther research, however, is needed not only to define optimal duration, and to clarify the effects of treatment on long-term metabolic outcomes, but also to explore different treatment options and possible combined therapies.

Effects of oral contraceptive pretreatment on IVF outcomes in women following a GnRH agonist protocol.

Does oral contraceptive pretreatment impact IVF-embryo transfer cycle outcomes in women following the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRHa) protocol? This retrospective study was designed to compare cycle outcomes after oral contraceptive pretreatment versus the standard protocol in women within the GnRHa long protocol or the GnRHa short protocol. A total of 2052 women undergoing their first IVF treatment with the GnRHa long protocol and 3557 women with the GnRHa short protocol between 2012 and 2017 were enrolled. No significant differences in the rates of clinical pregnancy (long protocol: 49.2% versus 46.7%; short protocol: 39.4% versus 38.0%) or live birth (long protocol: 44.3% versus 41.3%; short protocol: 32.8% versus 31.4%) after fresh embryo transfer were observed between the oral contraceptive group and the control group in either the long protocol or the short protocol. Oral contraceptive pretreatment has no effect on IVF outcomes in either the GnRHa long protocol or short protocol.

Subjective response to intranasal nicotine administration in oral contraceptive users and naturally-cycling women

IntroductionApproximately half of premenopausal women who smoke cigarettes also use hormonal contraceptives, with most using oral contraceptives (OCs). While research on the effects of endogenous hormones on smoking-related outcomes continues to expand, little is known about the influence of OCs on similar outcomes. We sought to explore differences in the subjective response to nicotine by OC use after stratifying by testing condition (e.g., smoking status). MethodsParticipants were regular (≥5 cigarettes/day) smokers, classified into OC and naturally cycling (NC) groups. All participants completed four total lab sessions by smoking status (ad libitum smoking, acute smoking abstinence) and anticipated progesterone level (low progesterone week (LPW), high progesterone week (HPW)). Each lab session included self-administration of intranasal nicotine (Time 0 min), assessment of subjective response via the Subjective State Scale (−30 and + 5 min). ResultsCompared to the NC group (n = 28), the OC group (n = 14) was younger (26.2 ± 1.1 versus 24.2 ± 1.1; p < 0.001) and had a lower Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence score (3.4 ± 0.5 versus 2.6 ± 0.5; p = 0.011). Progesterone-to-estradiol ratios varied significantly by group at three of the four time points (p < 0.05). During ad libitum smoking, the OC group had significantly lower craving after nicotine administration than the NC group (1.93 ± 0.33 versus 2.89 ± 0.23; p = 0.024). No other significant differences in subjective response were identified. ConclusionsDespite significantly different hormone levels, group differences in subjective response to nicotine were relatively few. Additional research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms involved in these observations, as well as explore how they may influence cessation in women.

Influence of Oral Contraceptive Use on Adaptations to Resistance Training.

Introduction: The majority of young women use oral contraceptives (OCs). Use of OCs has been associated with lower myofibrillar protein and tendon collagen synthesis rates, but it is unknown whether OCs will limit the adaptive response of myotendinous tissue to resistance training.Design and Methods: Fourteen healthy untrained young regular OC users (24 ± 1 years, fat% 32 ± 1, 35 ± 2 ml⋅min-1⋅kg-1) and 14 NOC users (non-OC, controls) (24 ± 1 years, fat% 32 ± 2, 34 ± 2 ml⋅min-1⋅kg-1) performed a 10-week supervised lower extremity progressive resistance training program. Before and after the intervention biopsies from the vastus lateralis muscle and the patellar tendon were obtained. Muscle (quadriceps) and tendon cross-sectional area (CSA) was determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and muscle fiber CSA was determined by histochemistry. Maximal isometric knee extension strength was assessed by dynamometry while 1 repetition maximum (RM) was determined during knee extension.Results: Training enhanced CSA in both muscle (p < 0.001) and tendon (p < 0.01). A trend toward a greater increase in muscle CSA was observed for OC (11%) compared to NOC (8%) (interaction p = 0.06). Analysis of mean muscle fiber type CSA showed a trend toward an increase in type II muscle fiber area in both groups (p = 0.11, interaction p = 0.98), whereas type I muscle fiber CSA increased in the OC group (n = 9, 3821 ± 197 to 4490 ± 313 mm2, p < 0.05), but not in NOC (n = 7, 4020 ± 348 to 3777 ± 354 mm2, p = 0.40) (interaction p < 0.05). Post hoc analyses indicated that the effect of OCs on muscle mass increase was induced by the OC-users (n = 7), who used OCs containing 30 μg ethinyl estradiol (EE), whereas the response in users taking OCs with 20 μg EE (n = 7) did not differ from NOC. Both the OC and NOC group experienced an increase in maximal knee strength (p < 0.001) and 1RM leg extension (p < 0.001) after the training period with no difference between groups.Conclusion: Use of OCs during a 10-week supervised progressive resistance training program was associated with a trend toward a greater increase in muscle mass and a significantly greater increase in type I muscle fiber area compared to controls. Yet, use of OCs did not influence the overall increase in muscle strength related to training.

Impairments In Lower Limb Microvascular Function Associated With Cycle Phases In Young Healthy Women.

Impairments in lower limb microvascular function associated with cycle phases in young healthy women. Rogerio N Soares, Anmol T Mattu, Juan M Murias. University of Calgary, Faculty of Kinesiology. PURPOSE: Differences in women’s hormone concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle affects vascular responsiveness. Previous investigations have shown that these changes can be modulated by regular use of oral contraceptives. However, most of these studies only assessed changes in vascular function at the upper limb conduit artery level. This study investigated whether vascular function at the lower limb microvasculature of healthy young women might be affected by the phase of the menstrual cycle. METHODS: 14 young (25 ± 5 years of age) physically active women participated in the study. The participants were assigned to two groups of seven participants each according to oral contraceptive use: non-contraceptive group (women who did not use any contraceptive within the last two years prior to the intervention - NCP) and oral contraceptive group (seven women who used oral contraceptive regularly for at least two years prior to the intervention – OCP). The participants underwent two lower limb vascular occlusion tests (5 min of baseline, 5 min of occlusion, and 8 min following cuff release) in two different phases of the menstrual cycle (follicular and luteal phase). Microvascular responsiveness was assessed by the percent of change of the NIRS-derived muscle oxygen saturation (StO2) reperfusion slope (%/sec) of the tibialis anterior muscle. RESULTS: There was no difference in the reperfusion slope of the NCP group between the follicular (1.18 ± 0.5 %/sec) and luteal (1.01 ± 0.3 %/sec) phases. The reperfusion slope of the OCP group was significantly steeper in the follicular (0.85 ± 0.2 %/sec) compared to the luteal phase (0.63 ± 0.2 %/sec). CONCLUSION: Use of oral contraceptive is associated with reduced microvascular function in the luteal phase in young physically active women.

Plasma Free Cortisol in States of Normal and Altered Binding Globulins: Implications for Adrenal Insufficiency Diagnosis.

Accurate diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency is critical because there are risks associated with overdiagnosis and underdiagnosis. Data using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) free cortisol (FC) assays in states of high or low cortisol-binding globulin (CBG) levels, including cirrhosis, critical illness, and oral estrogen use, are needed. Cross-sectional. Determine the relationship between CBG and albumin as well as total cortisol (TC) and FC in states of normal and abnormal CBG. Establish the FC level by LC/MS/MS that best predicts TC of <18 μg/dL (497 nmol/L) (standard adrenal insufficiency diagnostic cutoff) in healthy individuals. This study included a total of 338 subjects in four groups: healthy control (HC) subjects (n = 243), patients with cirrhosis (n = 38), intensive care unit patients (ICU) (n = 26), and oral contraceptive (OCP) users (n = 31). FC and TC by LC/MS/MS, albumin by spectrophotometry, and CBG by ELISA. TC correlated with FC in the ICU (R = 0.91), HC (R = 0.90), cirrhosis (R = 0.86), and OCP (R = 0.70) groups (all P < 0.0001). In receiver operator curve analysis in the HC group, FC of 0.9 μg/dL (24.8 nmol/L) predicted TC of <18 μg/dL (497 nmol/L; 98% sensitivity, 91% specificity; AUC, 0.98; P < 0.0001). Decreasing the cutoff to 0.7 μg/dL led to a small decrease in sensitivity (92%) with similar specificity (91%). A cutoff FC of <0.9 μg/dL (25 nmol/L) in this LC/MS/MS assay predicts TC of <18 μg/dL (497 nmol/L) with excellent sensitivity and specificity. This FC cutoff may be helpful in ruling out adrenal insufficiency in patients with binding globulin derangements.

Vascular Changes in Healthy Youngsters with and without Influence of Oral Contraception

Introduction : Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. It is known to have a reduced incidence in premenopausal women compared to the opposite sex. This appears to be related to the female hormones and their fluctuation throughout the menstrual cycle. Objectives : To evaluate and correlate behavior patterns of cerebral dynamics and arterial reactivity throughout the menstrual cycle and to identify possible differences caused by the use of oral contraceptives (OC). Methods : The sample consisted of 21 healthy, eumenorrheic and non-smoking young womens, belonging to the 18-21 age group. There were two distinct groups: 11 in the group without oral contraceptive (SCO) and 10 in the oral contraceptive group (CCO). Both groups performed an evaluation in the menstrual phase (MP), from the 1st to the 4th day, and in the ovulatory phase (OP), from the 12th to the 16th day. The third evaluation was performed in the late luteal phase (LLP) from the 26th to the 30th day, in the SCO group and in the OC pause, from the 21st to the 28th day, in the CCO group. Four noninvasive procedures were performed: blood pressure measurement, axillary temperature, carotid and right brachial artery sonography. Results : There were no statistically significant differences in carotid parameters, however, there were variations in the velocity of the systolic peak (VPS) of the common carotid artery (CCA) and internal carotid artery (ICA) and the ICA resistance index (IR), throughout the cycle. The SCO group showed a significant increase in FMD from MF to OF (p = 0.023), decreasing in LL (p = 0.012). The CCO group demonstrated a relative stabilization of FMD values. In OP, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups in relation to the FMD value (p = 0.040). Conclusions : Cyclic fluctuations of estrogen appear to influence cerebral vascular impedance and arterial reactivity but in different proportions. In conclusion, this study supports the idea of standardizing the timing of vascular testing in a premenopausal woman.

Plasma Renin in Women Using and not Using Combined Oral Contraceptive

Abstract Backgroud: Recent studies show that women on combined oral contraceptives (COC) present abnormal fasting lipid profile, increased postprandial lipemia, plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) and blood pressure (BP) compared to women not on combined oral contraceptives. Plasma renin is one of the factors responsible for abnormal BP. Objectives: To assess plasma renin levels in women using or not using COC, the correlation between renin and CRP, as well as divergences in lipid profile. Methods: A cross-sectional study with apparently healthy women aged 20 to 30, eutrophic, irregularly active, and with fasting triglycerides < 150 mg/dL. The sample was stratified into two groups: the No Combined Oral Contraceptive Group (NCOCG), comprised of women who did not use any type of hormone contraceptive, and the Combined Oral Contraceptive Group (COCG) comprised of women on low-dose COC for at least one year. After a 12-hour fast, 5 ml of blood was collected for renin dosing and PCR. Data were analyzed by the t-Test and bidirectional Mann-Whitney Test, both with significance < 0.05. Results: We evaluated 44 women equally distributed between the groups, age 23 ± 1.2 years, BMI 21.0 ± 3.2 kg/m2. Median and interquartile deviation of renin in the NCOCG and the COCG were, respectively, 0.5 (0.1-1.0) and 3.0 (2-6) (p < 0.01). A positive correlation between PCR and renin (p < 0.01 and r = 0.68) was found. Conclusion: The plasma renin levels of women using COC were higher, with a strong correlation with CRP.

Changes in total choline concentration in the breast of healthy fertile young women in relation to menstrual cycle or use of oral contraceptives: a 3-T 1H-MRS study

BackgroundTo evaluate changes in total choline (tCho) absolute concentration ([tCho]) in the breast of healthy fertile women in relation to menstrual cycle (MC) or use of oral contraceptives (OC).MethodsAfter institutional review board approval, we prospectively evaluated 40 healthy fertile volunteers: 20 with physiological MC, aged 28 ± 3 years (mean ± standard deviation; nOC group); 20 using OC, aged 26 ± 3 years (OC group). Hormonal assays and water-suppressed single-voxel 3-T proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) were performed on MC days 7, 14, and 21 in the nOC group and only on MC day 14 in the OC group. [tCho] was measured versus an external phantom. Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman coefficient were used; data are given as median and interquartile interval.ResultsAll spectra had good quality. In the nOC group, [tCho] (mM) did not change significantly during MC: 0.8 (0.3–2.4) on day 7, 0.9 (0.4–1.2) on day 14, and 0.4 (0.2–0.8) on day 21 (p = 0.963). In the OC group, [tCho] was 0.7 (0.2–1.7) mM. The between-groups difference was not significant on all days (p ≥ 0.411). All hormones except prolactin changed during MC (p ≤ 0.024). In the OC group, [tCho] showed a borderline correlation with estradiol (r = 0.458, p = 0.056), but no correlation with other hormones (p ≥ 0.128). In the nOC group, [tCho] negatively correlated with prolactin (r = -0.587, p = 0.006) on day 7; positive correlation was found with estradiol on day 14 (r = 0.679, p = 0.001).ConclusionsA tCho peak can be detected in the normal mammary gland using 3-T 1H-MRS. The [tCho] in healthy volunteers was 0.4–0.9 mM, constant over the MC and independent of OC use.

Status of Serum Iron and Copper in Women Taking Oral Contraceptive

The oral contraceptive pill fulfills the great human need for birth control with unrivalled effectiveness. The pill can effectively prevent pregnancy and alleviate many menstrual disorders when used correctly. Many biochemical profiles of women taking oral contraceptives are disturbed due to metabolic alterations induced by its hormone content. The study was carried out in the Department of Biochemistry, Mymensingh Medical College, Mymensingh, during the period of July 2016 to June 2017 to evaluate the status of serum iron and copper in women taking oral contraceptive pills. For this study 120 agematched women were selected and grouped as 60 oral contraceptive user women and 60 non-oral contraceptive user women. Data were analyzed with the help of SPSS version 21. Mean(±SD) level of serum iron and copper were 155.20±21.94 mg/dl and 157.6±14.75 mg/dl in oral contraceptive user women, while in normal healthy women the levels were 103±19.11 mg/dl and 126.28±17.18 mg/dl respectively. Serum iron and copper levels were significantly increased in oral contraceptive user group when compared with that of normal healthy group (p&lt;0.001). From this study it can be concluded that there is significant association of serum iron and copper level with oral contraceptives.Bangladesh J Med Biochem 2017; 10(1): 5-9

Oral Contraceptives Attenuate Metaboreflex in Young Women

BackgroundSkeletal muscle afferent feedback (group III/IV) increases mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) during exercise. Evidence suggests that oral contraceptive (OC) use can increase resting blood pressure. The influence of OC on MAP and HR when activating group III/IV afferents is unclear.ObjectiveTo determine if women taking OCs have greater cardiovascular responses to activating group III/IV afferents and if phases of menstrual cycle influence this response.MethodsTwelve women (means ± SD; 24±2 yrs, 7 taking OCs) attended two identical experimental visits, once during early follicular (low estrogen, days 1–4, LE) and once during ovulation (high estrogen, days 10–14, HE). Visits included 1) 3 min of rest and 3 min of passive knee flexion (HUMAC Norm, CSMI, Stoughton, MA) to activate the mechanoreflex and 2) steady state cycling (5 min) with bilateral post exercise circulatory occlusion (PECO) (2 min) of the vastus lateralis to activate the metaboreflex. Continuous noninvasive blood pressure (Nexfin, Edward Lifesciences, Irvine, CA) and a 3 lead ECG (AD Instruments, Coloroado Springs, CO) measured MAP and HR, respectively.ResultsResting MAP was similar in women taking OC (90±4 mmHg) vs. no OC (87±8 mmHg, p=0.24). Mechanoreceptor activation did not increase MAP (OC: 90±6 mmHg and no OC: 88±8 mmHg) or HR (OC: 64±7 bpm and no OC: 67±12 bpm, p&lt;0.05) in either group. MAP and HR were similar in women during both LE and HE phases with mechanoreflex activation (p&gt;0.05). Metaboreflex activation increased MAP in women not taking OCs (steady state 95±23 mmHg vs. PECO 105±24 mmHg). On the other hand, MAP decreased with metaboreceptor activation in women taking OCs (steady state 94±12 mmHg vs. PECO 89±16 mmHg, p=0.032). Resting HR was greater in women not taking OCs (136±11 bpm) vs. OCs (107±32 bpm, p&lt;0.05). HR declined with metaboreflex activation in both OC and no OC group irrespective of LE and HE phase (p&lt;0.05).ConclusionsAlthough mechanoreflex activation did not influence MAP for either group of women, women taking OCs had an attenuated MAP with metaboreflex activation. This is in contrast to evidence suggesting that OCs can increase MAP at rest and may indicate that during exercise OC use can be beneficial in lowering blood pressure in women.Support or Funding InformationNo funding to disclose.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Different Effects of Oral Contraceptive and Dydrogesterone Treatment on Oxidative Stress Levels in Premenopausal Women.

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to observe the changes in blood oxidative stress levels by oral contraceptive (OC) and/or dydrogesterone (DG) treatment.MethodsA retrospective cohort of 27 premenopausal women with primary dysmenorrhea consisted of the OC treatment group (N = 17) and the DG treatment group (N = 10) by choice of the initial treatment. The OC group included two subgroups: patients with continuous OC treatment (treated for at least 15 months, N = 10) and patients with discontinuous OC treatment (switched to DG treatment after approximately 6 months of initial OC treatment: N = 7). The DG group had 15 months of continuous DG treatment. Blood parameters, including diacron-reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs: an oxidative stress marker), were measured.ResultsThe d-ROMs level was elevated in the OC group 3 months after initial treatment (mean: from 321 (at baseline) to 512 Carratelli Units (Carr U); P < 0.01), while such changes were not observed in the DG group. The d-ROMs level was reduced in the discontinuous OC subgroup 15 months after initial treatment (from 508 (3 months after initial treatment) to 372 Carr U; P < 0.01), while such changes were not observed in the continuous OC subgroup. The DG group displayed unchanged the d-ROMs level.ConclusionReplacing OC with DG can attenuate oxidative stress as elevated by OC, thereby alleviating the possible vascular risks with OC treatment.

The effect of oral contraceptive use on salivary testosterone concentrations and athlete performance during international field hockey matches

ObjectivesTo investigate the effect of oral contraceptive (OC) use on salivary testosterone (sal-T) concentrations and performance-related statistics in international field hockey matches. DesignA cohort observational study with repeated measures. MethodsTwenty-three elite female athletes were monitored across four international field hockey matches over a nine-day period. Salivary T was assessed 45min before each match and several match performance statistics were collated; load (i.e. ratings of perceived exertion×playing time), video-derived positive actions (PA) and negative actions (NA), plus coach and player ratings of performance. The sal-T and match performance profiles of OC (n=7) and Non-OC (n=16) players were compared and predictive relationships tested. ResultsPre-match sal-T concentrations were 35% higher in the Non-OC than the OC group (p=0.001), representing a large effect size (ES) difference of 0.96. The OC and Non-OC groups did not differ on any performance statistic (p≥0.348) with ES differences from −0.22 to 0.11. Salivary T was positively related to the number of PA during match play (p=0.017). Additional linkage between sal-T and NA emerged, but with opposing slopes (p=0.008) in the OC (B=−1.783, p=0.030) and Non-OC (B=0.692, p=0.127) groups. ConclusionsOC usage by elite women athletes was accompanied by lower sal-T concentrations, but the performance outputs of the OC and Non-OC groups were similar. This suggests that the T differences had no impact on match performance. On an individual (population-averaged) level, sal-T was associated with PA and NA during these matches, though the response curves predicting NA differed for OC and Non-OC athletes.

The Influence of Hormonal Contraception on Vitamin D Supplementation on Serum 25(OH)D3 Status in Premenopausal Women: A Prospective Double-Blind Placebo Random Controlled Trial

Background: A number of cross-sectional studies have highlighted a potential benefit of estrogen-containing contraception on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels. The purpose of the present prospective study was to determine whether oral vitamin D 3 supplementation significantly increases serum 25(OH)D more for women taking the estrogen-containing oral contraception than those not taking this medication. Methods: Thirty-eight premenopausal adult females aged 18 - 45 years old were recruited from a university campus; exclusion criteria included those presently taking vitamin D supplementation, those who stopped or started taking oral contraception in last 6 months and those taking any other form of contraception. A prospective double-blind placebo design was implemented; the dependent variable was serum 25(OH)D and the independent variables were using or not using oral estrogen-containing contraception, and vitamin D 3 or placebo supplementation. Participants were tested 4 weeks apart, and blood samples were collected using a capillary blood spot sample method and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. An independent technician prepared the identical supplement bottles with either 100 placebo pills or 100 active vitamin D 3 pills (1,000 IU per pill) and participants randomly selected a supplement bottle. Results: Baseline measurements of 25(OH)D were non-significantly 11% higher in those taking estrogen. ANOVA results revealed a significant two-way interaction between supplementation group (treatment vs. placebo) and treatment period (before vs. after) (P < 0.001), demonstrating a substantial rise in serum 25(OH)D for the treatment group compared with the placebo group. The results also identified a three-way interaction (P = 0.014) on serum 25(OH)D between the three independent variables, with the vitamin D oral contraception group having significantly greater serum 25(OH)D increases (from 45.9 to 98.3 nmol/L) compared with those not taking oral contraception (44.2 - 69.6 nmol/L) (P = 0.019). Conclusions: The estrogen-containing oral contraception increases serum 25(OH)D in premenopausal women with a magnified effect in those taking vitamin D supplementation. Future studies need to examine the relationship between estrogen, vitamin D supplementation, serum 25(OH)D, 1,25(OH)D, parathyroid hormone and other markers of bone metabolisms. J Endocrinol Metab. 2017;7(4):117-121 doi: https://doi.org/10.14740/jem441w

Angiotensin II/Angiotensin (1-7) ratio and 24-h blood pressure throughout the menstrual cycle and in women using oral contraceptives.

Women using oral contraceptives have higher ambulatory blood pressures (BPs) than other women. We sought to learn whether this was associated with an alteration in the balance of angiotensin II (Ang)/Ang (1-7) and whether this ratio and BP remained constant throughout the menstrual cycle. In total, 30 (15 ovulatory, 15 taking oral contraceptives) healthy, normotensive women aged 18-30 years were studied. The ovulatory group was assessed within days 1-5 (follicular phase) and 19-23 (luteal phase) and the oral contraceptive group within days 19-23. Peripheral, central and 24-h BP, vascular wall stiffness, and body composition were measured along with plasma estradiol, progesterone, renin, aldosterone, Ang II, and Ang (1-7) concentrations. In ovulatory women plasma renin activity (P < 0.001), renin concentration (P < 0.01) and aldosterone (P < 0.05) were higher in the luteal than follicular phase, whereas BP, Ang II and the Ang II/Ang (1-7) ratio remained constant. In women taking oral contraceptives, plasma renin activity (P < 0.001) and concentration (P < 0.01) were higher than in follicular phase ovulatory women whereas 24-h BP, Ang II, Ang (1-7), and the Ang II/Ang (1-7) ratio (P < 0.01) were higher than in both phases of the ovulatory group. However, there was no significant correlation between BP and the Ang II/Ang (1-7) ratio. This study confirms that BP is constant throughout the normal menstrual cycle along with a constant balance between the vasoconstrictor (Ang II) and vasodilator [Ang (1-7)] arms of the renin-Ang-aldosterone system. Women taking oral contraceptives have a higher Ang II/Ang (1-7) ratio associated with their BP elevation although no causal relationship has been found.

Influence of sex, menstrual cycle, and oral contraceptives on cerebrovascular resistance and cardiorespiratory function during Valsalva or standing.

Women experience orthostatic intolerance more than men, and they experience faintness more in the early follicular [i.e., low-hormone (LH)] than luteal [i.e., high-hormone (HH)] phase of the menstrual cycle. Men (n = 13, 25.8 ± 1.8 yr old) and women in the LH (days 2-5; placebo) and HH (days 18-24; high dose) phases of the menstrual cycle with (OC; n = 14, 22.0 ± 0.8 yr old) or without (NOC; n = 12, 21.8 ± 0.5 yr old) oral contraceptive (OC) use underwent the Valsalva maneuver and a supine-sit-stand protocol. Blood pressure, normalized stroke volume [stroke volume index (SVi)], cardiac output index, heart rate, end-tidal CO2, and middle cerebral artery (MCA) blood flow velocity were measured. When subjected to the Valsalva maneuver, all women had a greater increase in diastolic and mean MCA blood flow velocity than men (P ≤ 0.065), with no significant effect of menstrual cycle phase or OC use. When subjected to the supine-sit-stand protocol, men had lower MCA blood flow velocity (P < 0.038) than all women, and SVi was higher in men than in the NOC group in all postures (P < 0.011) and in the OC group in the LH phase of the menstrual cycle during standing (P = 0.010). Only men experienced higher resistance index (P < 0.001) and pulsatility index (P < 0.001) with standing. The OC group had lower end-tidal CO2 (P = 0.002) than the NOC group (P = 0.030) and men (P ≤ 0.067). SVi (P = 0.004) and cardiac output index (P = 0.008) were higher in the OC than NOC group. A tendency toward a lower mean MCA blood flow velocity (P = 0.058) and higher SVi (P = 0.059) and pulsatility index (P = 0.058) was noted in the HH than LH phase. Mean arterial pressure was higher in the OC than NOC group in the LH phase (P = 0.049) and lower in the HH than LH phase (P = 0.014). Our results indicate that cycling estrogens/progestins can influence ventilatory, cardiovascular, and/or cerebrovascular physiology.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have found sex differences in the cerebrovascular response to the Valsalva maneuver and standing. Men have greater cerebral vasoconstriction (or women have greater cerebral vasodilation) during late phase II of the Valsalva maneuver, and the cerebrovascular resistance index increases in men, but not in women, during standing. Furthermore, our findings indicate that both the menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptive use can influence cardiovascular function both at rest and during active standing.

Oral Contraceptive Use Dampens Physiological Adaptations to Sprint Interval Training

Oral contraceptive (OC) use reduces peak aerobic capacity (V˙O2peak); however, whether it also influences adaptations to training has yet to be determined. This study aimed to examine the influence of OC use on peak performance (peak power output [PPO]) and physiological adaptations (V˙O2peak and peak cardiac output [Q˙peak]) after sprint interval training (SIT) in recreationally active women. Women taking an OC (n = 25) or experiencing natural regular menstrual cycles (MC; n = 16) completed an incremental exercise test to assess V˙O2peak, PPO, and Q˙peak before, immediately after, and 4 wk after 12 sessions of SIT. The SIT consisted ten 1-min efforts at 100% to 120% PPO in a 1:2 work-rest ratio. Though V˙O2peak increased in both groups after SIT (both P < 0.001), the MC group showed greater improvement (OC, +8.5%; MC, +13.0%; P = 0.010). Similarly, Q˙peak increased in both groups, with greater improvement in the MC group (OC, +4.0%; MC, +16.1%; P = 0.013). PPO increased in both groups (OC, +13.1%; MC, +13.8%; NS). All parameters decreased 4 wk after SIT cessation, but remained elevated from pretraining levels; the OC group showed more sustained training effects in V˙O2peak (OC, -4.0%; MC, -7.7%; P = 0.010). SIT improved peak exercise responses in recreationally active women. However, OC use dampened V˙O2peak and Q˙peak adaptation. A follow-up period indicated that OC users had spared V˙O2peak adaptations, suggesting that OC use may influence the time course of physiological training adaptations. Therefore, OC use should be verified, controlled for, and considered when interpreting physiological adaptations to exercise training in women.

Influence of oral contraceptives on lipid profile and paraoxonase and commonly hepatic enzymes activities.

The aim of the study was to verify the influence of oral contraceptives (OCs) on lipid profile and the arylesterase, lactonase and phosphotriesterase activities of paraoxonase 1 (PON1). Also commonly hepatic enzymes: aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and γ-glutamyltranspherase (GGT) were measured. Lipid profile and hepatic enzymes were determined using commercial available reagents. Paraoxonase activities were estimated using earlier published procedures. Blood samples were collected from 120 women of similar age (22.6±1.0years) with similar BMI (20.71±2.20kg/m2 ). Participations were divided into two groups: 74 females do not take (group A) and 46 women taking OCs (group B). Higher triglycerides and lower low-density lipoproteins levels were observed in group B than in group A) (56.9±19.7mg/dL. Castelli risk index I was significantly higher in group B when compared to group A (P<.0001), whereas we did not observe any statistically significant differences in Castelli risk index II value between studied groups. In group B, increase in ALT, AST and GGT activities were found, while the de Ritis ratio was lower in group B than in group A. In group B, lower phosphotriesterase activity and higher arylesterase and lactonase activities were found when compared to group A. Higher ALT, AST and GGT activities in serum as well as changes in lipid profile and PON activities can indicate that OCs usage can cause disorder in these parameters in the serum of women taking OCs.

Comparison of the Predictive Value of Antral Follicle Count, Anti-M&amp;#252;llerian Hormone and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone in Women Following GnRH-Antagonist Protocol for Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection

Background: Prediction of ovarian response is one of the prerequisites for women undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) treatment prior to the first controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) cycle. Predictive factors may be variable in patients pre-treated with oral contraceptives (OC) for scheduling purposes. Objective: To evaluate antral follicle count (AFC), anti-müllerian hormone (AMH) and basal follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) for predicting ovarian responses in patients under controlled ovarian hyperstimulation randomized to receive either oral contraceptives (OC) or no treatment (non-OC) prior to their first controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) cycle. Study Design: One hundred infertile women randomized to receive OC treatment or no treatment, prior to their first COS cycle; were stimulated with Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) antagonist protocol. During the early follicular phase (day 2) of the two subsequent cycles (cycle A & cycle B) sonographic (AFC, ovarian volume) and endocrine data (AMH, basal FSH) were recorded. Transvaginal ultrasound was performed for all patients to monitor the ovarian response. Total number of oocytes retrieved and number of generated embryos were recorded and patients were categorized according to retrieved oocytes as poor (oocytes 12). Result(s): AFC, AMH and basal FSH were lower in users than in non-users of hormonal contraception. Poor responders showed less number of oocytes retrieved and had lower AFC and AMH but a higher basal FSH level was recorded in both groups (OC and non-OC). Conclusion: The better predictive value of AMH or AFC, as a single test or in combination will prevent cycle cancellations due to too low or too high ovarian response. AMH in OC group is not affected by OC pretreatment and is superior to other parameters, while AFC is superior to AMH and basal FSH in non-OC group.