Formulation Options Research Articles

COMPUTATION OF UNSTEADY SWIRLING FLOWS IN NOZZLES AND PIPES BY APPLYING A NEW LOCALLY IMPLICIT GODUNOV-TYPE SCHEME

A new class of numerical schemes for calculating unsteady swirling flows in nozzles and pipes based on compressible inviscid gas equations is presented. The main advantage of these schemes is their ability to efficiently handle unsteady problems with multiple scales. The construction of such schemes is based on the well-known Godunov approach, which involves calculating fluxes at the faces of computational cells (volumes) by solving auxiliary one-dimensional problems in the vicinity of each face and approximating conservation laws. The scheme switches from an explicit method to an implicit one for flux calculation based on an analysis of the current solution near the cell face. The scheme is absolutely stable and does not generate spurious oscillations. Its effectiveness is demonstrated in the calculation of unsteady swirling flows in nozzles and pipes. Specifics of setting up problems of this type are investigated, and options for proper problem formulation are proposed. Properties of the solution for swirling flows with a central body covering only part of the symmetry axis in the computational domain are also studied.

Intratracheal Administration of Itraconazole-Loaded Hyaluronated Glycerosomes as a Promising Nanoplatform for the Treatment of Lung Cancer: Formulation, Physiochemical, and In Vivo Distribution.

Itraconazole (ITZ) is an antiangiogenic agent recognized as a potent suppressor of endothelial cell growth that suppresses angiogenesis. Nevertheless, its exploitation is significantly restricted by its low bioavailability and systematic side effects. The objective of this study was to utilize glycerosomes (GLY), glycerol-developed vesicles, as innovative nanovesicles for successful ITZ pulmonary drug delivery. The glycerosomes were functionalized with hyaluronic acid (HA-GLY) to potentiate the anticancer efficacy of ITZ and extend its local bio-fate. ITZ-HA-GLY were fabricated using soybean phosphatidylcholine, tween 80, HA, and sonication time via a thin-film hydration approach according to a 24 full factorial design. The impact of formulation parameters on ITZ-HA-GLY physicochemical properties, as well as the optimal formulation option, was evaluated using Design-Expert®. Sulphorhodamine-B (SRB) colorimetric cytotoxicity assay of the optimized ITZ-HA-GLY versus ITZ suspension was explored in the human A549 cell line. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution examined subsequent to intratracheal administrations of ITZ suspension, and ITZ-HA-GLY were scrutinized in rats. The optimized ITZ-HA-GLY unveiled vesicles of size 210.23 ± 6.43 nm, zeta potential of 41.06 ± 2.62 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 73.65 ± 1.76%. Additionally, ITZ-HA-GLY manifested a far lower IC50 of 13.03 ± 0.2 µg/mL on the A549 cell line than that of ITZ suspension (28.14 ± 1.6 µg/mL). Additionally, the biodistribution analysis revealed a higher concentration of ITZ-HA-GLY within the lung tissues by 3.64-fold as compared to ITZ suspension. Furthermore, the mean resistance time of ITZ-HA-GLY declined more slowly with 14 h as compared to ITZ suspension, confirming the accumulation of ITZ inside the lungs and their promising usage as a target for the treatment of lung disease. These data indicate that the improved ITZ-HA-GLY demonstrates significant promise and represents an exciting prospect in intratracheal delivery systems for lung cancer treatment, meriting further investigation.

Melt-extruded formulations of fenofibrate with various grades of hydrogenated phospholipid exhibit promising in-vitro biopharmaceutical behavior

In the current study, it was demonstrated that three commercially available grades of hydrogenated phospholipids (HPL) differing in their content of phosphatidylcholine may be used as components for hot melt-extruded binary (HPL as sole excipient) or ternary (in combination with copovidone) solid dispersions of fenofibrate (FEN) at mass fractions between 0.5 and 20% (ternary) or 80% (binary). X-ray powder diffraction indicated complete conversion of crystalline fenofibrate into the amorphous state by hot melt extrusion for all ternary blends. In contrast, both the binary blends (HPL- and copovidone-based) contained minor remaining crystallites. Irrespectively, all solid dispersions induced during dissolution studies a supersaturated state of FEN, where the ternary ASDs showed enhanced and more complete release of FEN as compared to the binary blends and, even more pronounced, in comparison to the marketed micronized and nano-milled formulations. In terms of the cumulated amount permeated, there were marginal differences between the various formulations when combined dissolution/permeation was done using FeSSIF as donor medium; with FaSSIF as donor medium, the binary HPL-ASD containing the grade with the highest phosphatidylcholine fraction performed best in terms of permeation, even significantly better than the marketed nano-crystal formulation. Otherwise, no significant differences were seen between the various grades of HPL when FEN dissolution and permeation were analyzed for ternary solid dispersions. In conclusion, the in-vitro biopharmaceutical behaviour of hydrogenated phospholipid-containing blends manufactured by hot melt extrusion appears promising. They can be a viable formulation option for poorly water-soluble and lipophilic drug compounds like FEN.

Low-melting mixture solvents as novel solubilizing agents: Improving tolvaptan formulation and therapeutic efficacy

Presently, a significant number of pharmaceutical drugs exhibit poor solubility in water and fall within categories II and IV of the biopharmaceutical classification system. This predicament has prompted the exploration for novel solvents or excipients to enhance the solubility and bioavailability of the active compounds in aqueous environments. Low-melting mixture solvents (LoMMSs) have gained recognition as potential solvents for active pharmaceutical ingredients to improve therapeutic efficacy and delivery. This study focuses on the preparation of a eutectic mixture composed of betaine, malic acid, proline, and water (BE-MA-PR-WA) to enhance the formulation options for tolvaptan, an FDA-approved medication used to treat acute congestive heart failure, which has limited solubility in aqueous solutions. The findings presented in this article represent the first reported results on the administration of LoMMS-solubilized tolvaptan. Furthermore, an examination of the solubility and bioavailability of tolvaptan utilizing this mixture was conducted, alongside an assessment of its toxicity. The solubility of tolvaptan in BE-MA-PR-WA (1:1:1:7) increased 483 times compared to solubility in water. Toxicity studies indicated that the LoMMS formulation BE-MA-PR-WA was safe for oral administration. The oral bioavailability of tolvaptan was significantly increased by 1.9-fold in the BE-MA-PR-WA than that in water. In addition, the 5-hour urine volume of rats indicated that BE-MA-PR-WA also enhanced the diuretic effects of tolvaptan in rats. The findings suggest that BE-MA-PR-WA enhance the solubility and bioavailability of tolvaptan, and are deemed non-toxic. Consequently, LoMMS may be deemed promising solubilizing agents, potentially facilitating the absorption of poorly bioavailable medications.

Ketoprofen-Tromethamine: Binary Phase Diagram of Multicomponent Crystal, Dissolution Rate, and Analgesic Activity Evaluation

Ketoprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) whose formulation options are limited due to its low dissolution rate in aqueous media. This research aimed to enhance the solubility of ketoprofen in distilled water and to compare the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of its resulting multicomponent crystal with tromethamine. The binary phase diagram of ketoprofen-tromethamine was created across molar ratios ranging from 1:9 to 9:1. The multicomponent crystal comprising ketoprofen and tromethamine in the selected ratio was synthesized using a solvent drop grinding method and subjected to further characterization for thermal properties, crystallinity, chemical groups, and morphology. The dissolution rate assessments were evaluated in CO2-free distilled water. Pharmacological analyses examined the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of the multicomponent crystal. The binary phase analysis identified the 5:5 (1:1) molar ratio as optimal in forming a multicomponent crystal. Thermograms and diffractograms revealed crystalline alterations attributed to a new crystalline phase. The new multicomponent crystal exhibited approximately 2.7 times higher dissolution rate after 30 minutes, outperforming pure ketoprofen. Pharmacological assessments demonstrated superior analgesic effects of the multicomponent crystal. In summary, the ketoprofen-tromethamine cocrystal in 1:1 molar ratio offers enhanced dissolution rate and provides better analgesic activity than ketoprofen alone.

Regulating Drug Release with Microspheres: Formulation, Mechanisms, and Challenges

Controlled drug release is a critical component of current drug delivery systems, aiming to improve therapeutic efficacy while minimizing negative effects. Because of their tunable features and numerous applications, microspheres have emerged as adaptable carriers for achieving controlled medication release. This review paper delves into the formulation techniques, mechanisms, and issues connected with controlling drug release utilizing microspheres. The essay begins by discussing the importance of controlled medication release in healthcare and the critical role that microspheres play in accomplishing this goal. It then looks into the numerous formulation options for microspheres, including material selection, production processes, and drug inclusion techniques. The impact of microsphere properties such as particle size, shape, and drug loading on release kinetics is also thoroughly examined. The processes influencing drug release from microspheres are described in detail, including diffusion-controlled, erosion-controlled, and swelling-controlled release mechanisms and the interaction of polymer characteristics and drug-polymer interactions. The article looks at sophisticated methods for producing targeted drug release, including exterior stimuli-responsive microspheres and internal stimuli-responsive systems. Site-specific targeting strategies are investigated, including passive targeting via the increased permeability and retention (EPR) effect and active targeting via ligand-functionalized microspheres. Despite its promise, microsphere-based drug delivery systems face a number of obstacles. Major challenges are burst release, stability, scale-up, immunogenicity, and regulatory issues. In the context of microsphere-based drug delivery, recent advances in enhanced characterization techniques, nanotechnology integration, combination therapies, personalized medicine, and new trends are discussed.

Utilization of engineered silicate dispersion as a cost-effective cheapener and engineered carbonate dispersion as novel reinforcing additives for nitrile latex glove application

Utilization of silicate minerals fillers in latex offer dual function as a compatible filler and cheapener that economical way to reduce latex consumption. This research explores the effect of using Engineered Silicate Composite Dispersion (ESD 086) as fillers for nitrile latex-supported gloves, seeking to explore their properties while ensuring cost-effectiveness. The reinforcement effect of novel Engineered Carbonate Dispersion (ECD 011) for ESD 086 filled Carboxylated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (XNBR/ESD 086) latex films has also been explored. XNBR latex films were compounded with three variants of ESD 086 at different loadings (in phr). From three variants of ESD 086 fillers, variant ESD 086A at 10 phr shows the highest tensile strength. As the ESD 086A filler loading increased up to 15 phr, the tensile strength decreased, indicating the ineffectiveness to be used at higher loading. The work was continued by exploring the use of novel ECD 011 to minimize the decrement effect. The 15 phr ESD 086 filled XNBR latex films (XNBR/ESD 086A-15) were subjected to a hybrid loading from 0 to 1.2 phr with 0.2 phr staggered increment together with the reduction of ECD 011:ZnO ratio in the XNBR latex compounds. Results show that at 0.6:0.6 phr of ECD 011:ZnO, the tensile strength of XNBR/ESD 086A-15 latex films increased and the elongation at break also improved. Using ESD 086A can reduce the usage of XNBR latex. Still, it can only be used up to 10 phr (optimum loading) and ECD 011 can maintain the physical properties and offer maximum cost-saving options for XNBR latex glove formulation at higher loading of ESD fillers. Overall, both engineered dispersions offer potential commercial benefits for the Nitrile gloves industry.

Formulation Options for Mucoadhesive Dosage Forms for Use in the Oral Cavity

Abstract Mucoadhesive dosage forms, which are used for topical application in the oral cavity, are currently a very intensively developing field in pharmaceutical technology. Considering the physiological conditions of the oral cavity, the formulation of these mucoadhesive forms is still a challenge. Various types and forms of polymers are used in the experiments, in combination with a large number of drugs, while the achieved effect can be local or systemic and the release rate can be controlled. For many drugs, buccal application is one of the ways to increase their bioavailability.

An investigation of excipients for a stable Orf viral vector formulation

The Orf virus (ORFV) is a promising candidate for vector vaccines as well as for immunomodulatory and oncolytic therapies. However, few publications are available on its infectivity degradation or on suitable additives for prolonging its viral stability. In this study, the non-supplemented ORFV itself showed a very high stability at storage temperatures up to 28 °C, with a linear titer loss of 0.10 log infectious particles per day at 4 °C over a period of five weeks. To prolong this inherent stability, thirty additives, i.e., detergents, sugars, proteins, salts, and buffers as well as amino acids, were tested for their time- and temperature-dependent influence on the ORFV infectivity. A stabilizing effect on the infectivity was identified for the addition of all tested proteins, i.e., gelatine, bovine serum albumin, and recombinant human serum albumin (rHSA), of several sugars, i.e., mannitol, galactose, sucrose, and trehalose, of amino acids, i.e., arginine and proline, of the detergent Pluronic F68, and of the salt Na2SO4. The infectivity preservation was especially pronounced for proteins in liquid and frozen formulations, sugars in frozen state, and arginine und Pluronic in liquid formulations at high storage temperatures (37 °C). The addition of 1% rHSA with and without 5% sucrose was evaluated as a very stable formulation with a high safety profile and economic validity at storage temperatures up to 28 °C. At increased temperatures, the supplementation with 200 mM arginine performed better than with rHSA. In summary, this comprehensive data provides different options for a stable ORFV formulation, considering temperature, storage time, economic aspects, and downstream processing integrity.

Modifying Drug Release for Intramuscular and Oral Delivery Using Drug-eluting Embolisation Beads

In recent years, polymer-based embolisation beads have been used to deliver drugs for the treatment of cancer directly to the site of action. Known to be biocompatible implants, these beads have become an ideal drug delivery vehicle for parenteral administration yet have not been considered for the more commonly used drug delivery routes such as oral and intramuscular drug delivery. This work describes the application of a type of polymer beads, formerly used for embolisation, as a formulation option for oral and intramuscular delivery of a model drug, namely imipramine. Following successful incorporation within the beads, dissolution analysis confirmed the potential to provide a modified drug release profile. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) permitted determination of the total water content within the beads (96.8%) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) indicated that not all of the water within the beads was able to freeze, apportioned as 15.8% non-freezing, 25.1% loosely bound and the remaining 55.9% unbound. In the presence of drug, the size of the beads decreased with a reduced water content (95.4%) comprised of 16.7% non-freezing, 20.5% freezing bound and the remaining 58.2% % unbound.In conclusion, the results presented in this study confirm the ability of TGA and DSC to separate the differing types of water within the beads and furthermore, the potential of such beads for a far wider variety of formulation options than those previously adopted.

GePI: large-scale text mining, customized retrieval and flexible filtering of gene/protein interactions.

We present GePI, a novel Web server for large-scale text mining of molecular interactions from the scientific biomedical literature. GePI leverages natural language processing techniques to identify genes and related entities, interactions between those entities and biomolecular events involving them. GePI supports rapid retrieval of interactions based on powerful search options to contextualize queries targeting (lists of) genes of interest. Contextualization is enabled by full-text filters constraining the search for interactions to either sentences or paragraphs, with or without pre-defined gene lists. Our knowledge graph is updated several times a week ensuring the most recent information to be available at all times. The result page provides an overview of the outcome of a search, with accompanying interaction statistics and visualizations. A table (downloadable in Excel format) gives direct access to the retrieved interaction pairs, together with information about the molecular entities, the factual certainty of the interactions (as verbatim expressed by the authors), and a text snippet from the original document that verbalizes each interaction. In summary, our Web application offers free, easy-to-use, and up-to-date monitoring of gene and protein interaction information, in company with flexible query formulation and filtering options. GePI is available at https://gepi.coling.uni-jena.de/.

Industry update, December 2022.

Industry update, December 2022.

Retrospectives on Three Decades of Safe Clinical Experience with Allogeneic Dermal Progenitor Fibroblasts: High Versatility in Topical Cytotherapeutic Care

Allogeneic dermal progenitor fibroblasts constitute cytotherapeutic contenders for modern cutaneous regenerative medicine. Based on advancements in the relevant scientific, technical, and regulatory fields, translational developments have slowly yet steadily led to the clinical application of such biologicals and derivatives. To set the appropriate general context, the first aim of this study was to provide a current global overview of approved cell and gene therapy products, with an emphasis on cytotherapies for cutaneous application. Notable advances were shown for North America, Europe, Iran, Japan, and Korea. Then, the second and main aim of this study was to perform a retrospective analysis on the various applications of dermal progenitor fibroblasts and derivatives, as clinically used under the Swiss progenitor cell transplantation program for the past three decades. Therein, the focus was set on the extent and versatility of use of the therapies under consideration, their safety parameters, as well as formulation options for topical application. Quantitative and illustrative data were summarized and reported for over 300 patients treated with various cell-based or cell-derived preparations (e.g., progenitor biological bandages or semi-solid emulsions) in Lausanne since 1992. Overall, this study shows the strong current interest in biological-based approaches to cutaneous regenerative medicine from a global developmental perspective, as well as the consolidated local clinical experience gathered with a specific and safe allogeneic cytotherapeutic approach. Taken together, these current and historical elements may serve as tangible working bases for the further optimization of local and modern translational pathways for the provision of topical cytotherapeutic care.

TOTEs and trauma: a cybernetic, extended recursion schematic for hyper vigilance

PurposeThis conceptual article presents a schematic for use with extended cybernetic recursion in living systems and applies it to the issue of hyper vigilance as a demonstration of its utility.Design/methodology/approachThe test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) schematic of Miller et al. (1960) is critically evaluated along with other schematics, including those of ordered cybernetics, and a new schematic is proposed, a recursive test-operate-test (rTOT), which emphasizes teleological purpose and hierarchical structure. The background psychophysiology of trauma is reviewed and then rTOT is applied to hyper vigilance, a cardinal component of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).FindingsOnce the schematic was developed, it was applied to the behavior of hyper vigilance. Other applications are suggested.Research limitations/implicationsAs demonstrated, the rTOT schematic has potentially wide application because of its pragmatic and detailed structure.Practical implicationsThe rTOT requires careful consideration of teleological purposes for its application and is simple enough, but also complex enough, for relevant utilization. Its compact nature and adjustable hierarchy scope are good mini-max complexity solutions for cybernetic, information modeling schematics.Social implicationsThe revealed teleological purpose of the trauma adaptation of hyper vigilance presents significant alternative formulation options for prevention and intervention.Originality/valueWhile the rTOT schematic is derived from previous schematics, it is original in its emphasis on information processing, the teleological aspects of extended recursion and on the provision of a hierarchical structure for those recursions. It is considerably more compact than other schematics associated with the ordered cybernetics literature. The explication of the adaptation model for post-trauma consequences is significantly enhanced by the rTOT application.

Endophytic Fungi Fusarium Equiseti EF2 Isolated from Leucas Aspera: A Novel Biocontrol Agent Against Culex Sp

Among several life-threatening diseases, vector-borne diseases play a significant role. Mosquito-borne conditions are dangerous and are more prevalent. Culex is the most prevalent and causative agent of many zoonotic diseases among various mosquito species. Endophytic fungi that reside in the healthy plant produce an array of bioactive compounds against several conditions causing pathogens. Thus, this study aimed to identify a novel antilarval combination from the endophytic fungi present in Leucas aspera leaves. The objectives include the isolation of endophytic fungi from leaf samples, selection of potent antilarval endophyte, and characterization of its bioactive compound. The exploration of the least studied fungi, Fusarium equiseti as an endophyte in the leaves of Leucas aspera with potent antilarval properties is an inquisitive discovery. A total of 10 endophytic fungi (EF-1 to EF-10) were isolated and screened for the larvicidal activity of the fungal broth and its spore. The best isolate, EF-2 was identified as Fusarium equiseti. The crude sample and the active fraction of the ethyl acetate extract exhibited potent antilarval properties against Culex mosquito larvae with 90% mortality. Phytochemical analysis and characterization studies by UV-Vis spectroscopy and GC-MS revealed bioactive compounds in the active fraction of the extract. Overall, this study suggested a new option for biocide formulation that could aid in the effort to control mosquitoes. Among several discoveries of bioactive compounds from the plant extracts, this study has identified novel compounds from its endophytic fungi rather than the plant itself. The extracts of endophytic fungi Fusarium equiseti isolated from Leucas aspera, has antilarvicidal activity. Â

An Evaluation of Different Types of Peptone as Partial Substitutes for Animal-derived Serum in Vero Cell Culture

Vero cells are one of the most frequently used cell types in virology. They can be used not only as a vehicle for the replication of viruses, but also as a model for investigating viral infectivity, cytopathology and vaccine production. There is increasing awareness of the need to limit the use of animal-derived components in cell culture media for a number of reasons, which include reducing the risk of contamination and decreasing costs related to the downstream processing of commercial products obtained via cell culture. The current study evaluates the use of protein hydrolysates (PHLs), also known as peptones, as partial substitutes for fetal bovine serum (FBS) in Vero cell culture. Eleven plant-based, two yeast-based, and three casein-based peptones were assessed, with different batches evaluated in the study. We tested the effects of three concentration ratios of FBS and peptone on Vero cell proliferation, four days after the initial cell seeding. Some of the tested peptones, when in combination with a minimal 1% level of FBS, supported cell proliferation rates equivalent to those achieved with 10% FBS. Collectively, our findings showed that plant-based peptones could represent promising options for the successful formulation of serum-reduced cell culture media for vaccine production. This is especially relevant in the context of the current COVID-19 pandemic, in view of the urgent need for SARS-CoV-2 virus production for certain types of vaccine. The current study contributes to the Three Rs principle of reduction, as well as addressing animal ethics concerns associated with FBS, by repurposing PHLs for use in cell culture.

Impact of Formulation Choices on the Freeze-Drying of an Interleukin-6 Reference Material.

Formulation is critical to successful delivery of lyophilized biologics. We have compared the impact of buffer choice and the addition of sodium chloride (a formulant often viewed as unfavorable for freeze-drying applications) on the outcome of trial lyophilization of an interleukin-6 reference material. While phosphate buffer was a preferred choice and yielded well-formed cakes associated with fair recovery of biological activity, the resultant residual moisture content was high (2–4% w/w). By inclusion of isotonic levels of NaCl, the freeze-dried appearance and process were not impaired, but the residual moisture delivered was considerably reduced to levels <1% w/w. We postulate that this is due to the presence of a more open-cake structure and support this with evidence from thermal analysis and scanning electron microscopy. This work illustrates the importance of wide ranging empirical investigation of formulation options in order to optimize freeze-drying outcomes for biologics.

Development of a new improved closed-form plastic collapse moment solution for structurally distorted and through-wall axially cracked 90° pipe bends subjected to in-plane closing bending moment

Plastic collapse loads of 90° pipe bends with structural defects subjected to in-plane closing bending are systematically examined in this study using three dimensional nonlinear finite element (FE) analyses. The analyses consider the large strain formulation option with the pipe bend material assumed to be of the elastic perfectly plastic (EPP) type. Pipe bends are analyzed by changing the ovality at the mid-section which is varied from 0% to 20% by 5% per step. The through-wall axial crack (TAC) parameter at the pipe bend's crown is varied from 0 to 1 by 0.2 per step. Moment rotation curves are drawn for all simulated pipe bend models and plastic collapse moment (PCM) loads are determined from the corresponding moment rotation curves using the Twice-Elastic-Slope (TES) methodology as recommended by clause NB-3213.25 in section III of ASME B&PV code. Both ovality and TAC of pipe bends significantly affects their plastic collapse moments (PCM) and this almost doubles when ovality and TAC act together. The observed effect of ovality and TAC on pipe bends having thin walled and short bend radius does not significantly change with increasing wall thickness and bend radius. The present FE analysis is validated using experimental PCM loads of pipe bends available in open literature. The crack closing effect of pipe bends during closing bending is examined. Based on the analysis, an improved structural integrity assessment equation for shape imperfect pipe bends with TAC is developed for in-plane closing bending moment loads.

Quantifying the Value of Introducing an Oral Drug Delivery Option for Edaravone: A Review of Analyses Evaluating the Economic Impact of Oral versus Intravenous Formulations.

BackgroundDrug formulation and route of administration can have an impact on not only patients’ quality of life and disease outcomes but also costs of care. It is essential for decision makers to use appropriate economic modeling methods to guide drug coverage policies and to support patients’ decision-making.PurposeTo illustrate key cost considerations for decision makers in economic evaluation of innovative oral formulations as alternatives to intravenous medication.Materials and MethodsA structured literature review was conducted using the PubMed database to examine methods used for quantifying the economic impact of introducing a new oral pharmaceutical formulation as an alternative to intravenous medication. To illustrate the methods described in this review, a cost-minimization analysis was conducted to quantify the impact of introducing an oral formulation of a medication originally developed as an intravenous treatment for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.ResultsWe identified 14 published evaluations of oral and intravenous formulations from 10 countries across a variety of disease areas. The identified studies used cost-effectiveness (n=10), cost-minimization (n=2), and cost-calculation (n=2) modeling approaches. All but one (13/14) reported outcomes from payers’ perspective, while societal perspectives were also incorporated in 3 of the reviewed evaluations. One study estimated costs from a public hospital’s perspective. Only a subset of the identified studies accounted for the effects of safety (n=6) or efficacy (n=8) differences on treatment costs when estimating the costs of a formulation choice. Many studies that omitted these aspects did not include rationales for their decisions.ConclusionWe found significant design variations in published models that estimated the impact of an additional formulation option on the treatment costs to payers and the society. Models need to be accompanied with clear descriptions on rationales for their time horizons and assumptions on how different formulations may affect healthcare costs from the selected perspectives.

NANOPARTICLES IN EMERGING PARENTERAL DRUG THERAPY: AN OVERVIEW

Aim: The aim of the study was to discuss the recent researches done over the nanoparticles and types of nanoparticles being useful in the parenteral delivery of drugs. Materials and methods: Different types of nanoparticles are developed i.e., liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nano-capsules, dendrimers, nanotubes, nanowires, nanocrystals and nanobots. Nanoparticles are very beneficial in pharmacy and health sciences as in cancer therapy, biological binders, drug carriers, targeted therapy etc. to boost the healthcare system. It aids in the improvement of medication solubility and bioavailability, as well as the reduction of toxicity, improved release, and better formulation options. It's worth noting that various commercial oral medications have been created using nanoparticle technology to improve API absorption. Nano-milling process is used to increase absorption of nano-parenteral. Conclusion: Active targeting is useful in oncology, especially for the treatment of malignancies, because it can reduce side effects. Consider tiny miniature robots that your doctor will inject into vein to look for cancer cells or administer a medicine. We anticipate that this system will modify cancer immunotherapy and provide novel therapeutic options in the near future. Keywords: Nanoparticles, Nanowires, Nano-parenteral, Therapy, Liposomes