Optical Lightning Research Articles

The Time Evolution of Optical Lightning Flashes.

The composition and time evolution of lightning are examined using the Lighting Imaging Sensor (LIS). Frame-by-frame optical lightning measurements are clustered into features whose radiant energy, horizontal footprint, and timing may be analyzed statistically. A LIS series feature is used to describe distinct periods of near continuous illumination that persists over multiple LIS frames. Series are integrated into the LIS clustering hierarchy between the group and flash level. An average series illuminates 40% of the flash footprint while accounting for 20% of the flash radiance, and just 1% of the flash duration. LIS flashes typically contain optical emissions that are exceptionally radiant and may persist over multiple frames. Series features cluster these bright optical pulses, allowing their number and time separation to be quantified in each flash. This optical multiplicity averages 1.7 for flashes with at least one particularly radiant group. Multigroup series most often occur early in the flash duration with 13% to 18% at first light. Series are typically separated by 100 ms or more in multiseries flashes. Bright series, by contrast, typically occur in rapid succession, with at most a few dozen milliseconds between them. Because series are optical features, they may result from any physical process that produces strong optical emissions. The statistics presented herein support the idea that series may originate from multiple physical processes.

Mapping the Lateral Development of Lightning Flashes From Orbit.

Optical lightning measurements from the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) are used to map the lateral development of lightning flashes and produce statistics that describe their motion through the electrified cloud. This is accomplished by monitoring the frame-by-frame (group-level) evolution of the optical signals produced during each flash. While the optical flash properties recorded by LIS gravitate towards the most exceptional optical signals produced during the flash, group-level data describe the evolution and lateral development of the flash resulting from physical lightning process that emits enough light out of the top of the cloud to be detected from orbit. The groups that comprise LIS flashes constitute examples of complex lateral flash structure that can extend 80 km in length with dozens to hundreds of visible branches. The lateral development of individual flashes is described in terms of its speed and direction of motion, whether the development extends the overall length of the flash or reilluminates an existing segment, and whether it is directed inbound or outbound with respect to the origin. Sixty-five percent of propagating groups are directed outbound from the origin, 22% extend the length of the flash, and 3-5% reilluminate an existing branch. LIS flashes are commonly oriented from east to west and develop at speeds ranging from 104 to 106 m/s, consistent with large-scale leader development. These results provide evidence that lightning imagers may be used in conjunction with Lightning Mapping Array systems to document physical lightning phenomena across global domains.

The Evolution and Structure of Extreme Optical Lightning Flashes.

This study documents the composition, morphology, and motion of extreme optical lightning flashes observed by the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS). The furthest separation of LIS events (groups) in any flash is 135 km (89 km), the flash with the largest footprint had an illuminated area of 10,604 km2, and the most dendritic flash has 234 visible branches. The longest-duration convective LIS flash lasted 28 s and is overgrouped and not physical. The longest-duration convective-to-stratiform propagating flash lasted 7.4 s, while the longest-duration entirely stratiform flash lasted 4.3 s. The longest series of nearly consecutive groups in time lasted 242 ms. The most radiant recorded LIS group (i.e., "superbolt") is 735 times more radiant than the average group. Factors that impact these optical measures of flash morphology and evolution are discussed. While it is apparent that LIS can record the horizontal development of the lightning channel in some cases, radiative transfer within the cloud limits the flash extent and level of detail measured from orbit. These analyses nonetheless suggest that lightning imagers such as LIS and Geostationary Lightning Mapper can complement ground-based lightning locating systems for studying physical lightning phenomena across large geospatial domains.

On the timing between terrestrial gamma ray flashes, radio atmospherics, and optical lightning emission

AbstractOn 25 October 2012 the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscope Imager (RHESSI) and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellites passed over a thunderstorm on the coast of Sri Lanka. RHESSI observed a terrestrial gamma ray flash (TGF) originating from this thunderstorm. Optical measurements of the causative lightning stroke were made by the lightning imaging sensor (LIS) on board TRMM. The World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) detected the very low frequency (VLF) radio emissions from the lightning stroke. The geolocation from WWLLN, which we also assume is the TGF source location, was in the convective core of the cloud. By using new information about both RHESSI and LIS timing accuracy, we find that the peak in the TGF light curve occurs 230 μs before the WWLLN time. Analysis of the optical signal from LIS shows that within the uncertainties, we cannot conclude which comes first: the gamma emission or the optical emission. We have also applied the new information about the LIS timing on a previously published event by Østgaard et al. (2012). Also for this event we are not able to conclude which signal comes first. More accurate instruments are needed in order to get the exact timing between the TGF and the optical signal.

Simultaneous observations of optical lightning from space and LF band lightning waveforms from the ground

AbstractObservations of optical lightning data with a photometer (PH4) at wavelengths of 599–900 nm on the International Space Station were conducted simultaneously with observations of low‐frequency (LF) electromagnetic waves with a ground‐based LF lightning locating system. The relationship between the PH4 light curve and electromagnetic waveforms in the LF band was examined for 11 lightning events. The PH4 sensor detected a small optical change even for weak light emitted from lightning discharges in clouds, including preliminary breakdown. Particularly, return strokes, including subsequent return strokes, showed a clear relationship between radiated LF waves and optical waveforms. For negative return strokes, we found a clear correlation between the absolute optical intensity and peak current. The slope of the regression line is 9.7 × 10−8 kA W−1 with an intercept of 9.9 kA.

The properties of optical lightning flashes and the clouds they illuminate

AbstractOptical lightning sensors like the Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) measure total lightning across large swaths of the globe with high detection efficiency. With two upcoming missions that employ these sensors—LIS on the International Space Station and the Geostationary Lightning Mapper on the GOES‐R satellite—there has been increased interest in what these measurements can reveal about lightning and thunderstorms in addition to total flash activity. Optical lightning imagers are capable of observing the characteristics of individual flashes that include their sizes, durations, and radiative energies. However, it is important to exercise caution when interpreting trends in optical flash measurements because they can be affected by the scene. This study uses coincident measurements from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite to examine the properties of LIS flashes and the surrounding cloud regions they illuminate. These combined measurements are used to assess to what extent optical flash characteristics can be used to make inferences about flash structure and energetics. Clouds illuminated by lightning over land and ocean regions that are otherwise similar based on TRMM measurements are identified. Even when LIS flashes occur in similar clouds and background radiances, oceanic flashes are still shown to be larger, brighter, longer lasting, more prone to horizontal propagation, and to contain more groups than their land‐based counterparts. This suggests that the optical trends noted in literature are not entirely the result of radiative transfer effects but rather stem from physical differences in the flashes.

Direction-of-Arrival Estimation of VHF Signals Recorded on the International Space Station and Simultaneous Observations of Optical Lightning

We report an initial investigation of the new location method of a very high frequency (VHF) radiation source, using signals recorded at the International Space Station. A VHF interferometer (VITF) has two VHF sensors. Locating lightning with VHF bands is useful to locate the position of the charge distribution in the thunderstorm. The location method of a radio source proposed used two direction-of-arrival estimation techniques. One is the interferometric technique, and another is based on the ionospheric propagation delay measurement of received signals. The combination of the two techniques provides two angular positions of the radiation source. When an altitude of a radiation source is assumed, we can determine two possible positions. One of the two positions was associated with the radiation source, while the other was not. In this paper, we compared the position of lightning and sprite imager (LSI) data, which are simultaneously captured during a lightning emission, with the locating position near the emission. The data set of the VITF within 100 ms of the optical lightning emission captured with the LSI was used. The temporally simultaneous event seems to be associated with the same lightning event. The estimated radiation positions were spatially in close agreement with the optical lightning positions captured with LSI, under nighttime ionosphere conditions. From statistical analysis, the spatial difference of the standard deviation changed from 15.3 to 30.8 km depending on the installation direction of the VHF sensors. The usefulness and limitations of the method are also discussed.

Simultaneous observations of optical lightning and terrestrial gamma ray flash from space

We present the very first simultaneous detection from space of a terrestrial gamma ray flash (TGF) and the optical signal from lightning. By fortuitous coincidence, two independent satellites passed less than 300 km from the thunderstorm system that produced a TGF that lasted 70 μs. Together with two independent measurements of radio emissions, we have an unprecedented coverage of the event. We find that the TGF was produced deep in the thundercloud at the initial stage of an intracloud (IC) lightning before the leader reached the cloud top and extended horizontally. A strong radio pulse was produced by the TGF itself. This is the first time the sequence of radio pulses, TGF, and optical emissions in an IC lightning flash has been identified.

Investigation of matrix photodetectors on structures with quantum wells in conditions of intensive optical lightning

Results of the investigation of degradation processes in matrix photodetectors on structures with quantum wells in the field of intensive laser radiation are presented. It is shown that the area joining the photodetector matrix crystal with the silicon crystal of a signal-processing integrated circuit plays an important role in these processes.

基于蒙特卡罗方法的卫星光学波段闪电辐射观测模拟

基于蒙特卡罗方法的卫星光学波段闪电辐射观测模拟

Optical Lightning Detector on board Jovian Orbiter (Special issue: Planetary exploration in a coming decade activity: Reports of 2nd stage)

Optical Lightning Detector on board Jovian Orbiter (Special issue: Planetary exploration in a coming decade activity: Reports of 2nd stage)

The NanoROLD project in the frame of the AeroClouds programme

The article reports on the study results of the NanoROLD (Nano Radio Optical Lightning Detector) project, which was proposed for inclusion in action line 3 (Climatic aspects of clouds and precipitation) of the AeroClouds Programme planned around the year 2004 by the MIUR (Ministry of Education, University and Research). After a short review of the AeroClouds objectives and the lightning geolocation requirements, the article reviews the location accuracies achievable with both single and multiple satellite system configurations, and compares the two approaches from performance and complexity viewpoints. The feasibility of radio frequency (RF) detection of electrical discharges is dealt with first, to demonstrate the feasibility of a high accuracy lightning geolocation mission by means of microsatellites, while the assessment of optical instruments is deferred to a later study phase. The final comparison is then restricted to two candidates: a three-satellite formation exploiting time-of-arrival (TOA) principles; and a single satellite implementing a three-arm radiofrequency interferometer. The expected greater costs of a three-satellite constellation in formation flight are offset by the greater complexity and criticality of the interferometer system based on a single satellite and by its poorer performance in terms of lightning geolocation accuracy. However, for an experimental, fund-limited programme, a demonstration mission based on a single satellite could be more appropriate and an initial baseline design is also provided in the article.

Lightning-generated whistler waves observed by probes on the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecast System satellite at low latitudes

Direct evidence is presented for a causal relationship between lightning and strong electric field transients inside equatorial ionospheric density depletions. In fact, these whistler mode plasma waves may be the dominant electric field signal within such depletions. Optical lightning data from the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecast System (C/NOFS) satellite and global lightning location information from the World Wide Lightning Location Network are presented as independent verification that these electric field transients are caused by lightning. The electric field instrument on C/NOFS routinely measures lightning ]related electric field wave packets or sferics, associated with simultaneous measurements of optical flashes at all altitudes encountered by the satellite (401.867 km). Lightning ]generated whistler waves have abundant access to the topside ionosphere, even close to the magnetic equator.

A passive opto-electronic lightning sensor based on electromagnetic field detection for utilities applications

This paper presents the results of a passive optical lightning sensor for utilities applications. The main sensor application is for the location of lightning strikes in overhead power lines, but it can also be used in substations or in power generation plants. The proposed sensor detects lightning indirectly by means of detecting lightning electromagnetic pulses, which are used to modulate directly a semiconductor laser coupled to a fibre optic pigtail. No solar panels, batteries or electronic control circuits are necessary to implement this sensing technique. This paper shows the results of the sensor characterization made only in laboratory and the possibilities of its use in an optical WDM sensor network.

Analysis of Lightning Disasters in China and Their Correlative Factors

In order to obtain a better reveal of the spatial and temporal distribution and formation mechanism of lightning disasters in China,this paper establishes a national lightning disaster database and gives statistic analysis of lightning disaster data from 1997 to 2006,in combination with the analysis of satellite-based Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor lightning detecting data from 1995 to 2005 over China.Characteristics of lightning disasters and correlative factors are studied,including lightning exposure,hazard formative environment,hazard,hazard affected bodies and their interactions.The results are as follows.(1) The frequency of lightning disasters and lightning-related casualties correlate with hazard(lightning activities) and hazard affected bodies(population and economic development) in different areas of China.Taking area into consideration,lightning casualties correlate with lightning density,population density and the average GDP,but in negative correlation with rural population proportion and area.Various types of lightning exposure are closely related to various types of hazard affected bodies(proportion of urban population to rural population and economic development).Casualties from lightning disasters rate higher where rural population proportion is higher,while cities mainly suffer property loss from lightning disasters.(2) The annual and diurnal variations in the lightning casualties and the lightning damage correlate significantly with that of the lightning rate.Compared with lightning damages,lightning casualties are affected by people's life routines and habits.(3) Different hazard formative environment causes different ways of lightning casualties and damages.The most proportion lightning fatalities occur on farmland,while the most proportion lightning injuries occur in buildings.(4) 80% of lightning casualties incidents only involve one or two victim,while 61% of the cases involve one victim and 19% involve two victims.Lightning disasters with one death account for 83% of all lightning disasters involving death,while lightning disasters with two death accounts for 12%.(5) Major lightning casualties are directly related to vulnerability of hazard affected bodies.54% of major lightning casualties happen in rural buildings and constructions,in most of which lightning protection appliances are not installed.21% happen in sites with danger of explosion and fire,while 13% and 8% happen in classrooms and tourist sites respectively.

Lightning Detection by LAC Onboard the Japanese Venus Climate Orbiter, Planet-C

Lightning activity in Venus has been a mystery for a long period, although many studies based on observations both by spacecraft and by ground-based telescope have been carried out. This situation may be attributed to the ambiguity of these evidential measurements. In order to conclude this controversial subject, we are developing a new type of lightning detector, LAC (Lightning and Airglow Camera), which will be onboard Planet-C (Venus Climate Orbiter: VCO). Planet-C will be launched in 2010 by JAXA. To distinguish an optical lightning flash from other pulsing noises, high-speed sampling at 50 kHz for each pixel, that enables us to investigate the time variation of each lightning flash phenomenon, is adopted. On the other hand, spatial resolution is not the first priority. For this purpose we developed a new type of APD (avalanche photo diode) array with a format of 8×8. A narrow band interference filter at wavelength of 777.4 nm (OI), which is the expected lightning color based on laboratory discharge experiment, is chosen for lightning measurement. LAC detects lightning flash with an optical intensity of average of Earth’s lightning or less at a distance of 3 Rv. In this paper, firstly we describe the background of the Venus lightning study to locate our spacecraft project, and then introduce the mission details.

Local time variation in land/ocean lightning flash density as measured by the World Wide Lightning Location Network

We study local time variation in high peak current lightning over land versus over ocean by using lightning locations from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN). Optical lightning data from the photodiode detector on the Fast On‐Orbit Recording of Transient Events (FORTE) satellite are used to determine the relative detection efficiency of the WWLLN for lightning events by region, as well as over land versus over ocean. We find that the peak lightning flash density varies for the different continents by up to 5 hours in local time. Because the WWLLN measures lightning strokes with large peak currents, the variation in local time of WWLLN‐detected strokes suggests a similar variation in local time of transient luminous events (e.g., elves) and their effects on the lower ionosphere.

Comparison of Narrow Bipolar Events with Ordinary Lightning as Proxies for the Microwave-Radiometry Ice-Scattering Signature

Abstract The narrow bipolar event (NBE) is a unique lightning discharge that has a short (∼10 μs) overall duration, lacks a prior leader phase, and produces too little light output to be visible by optical lightning detectors on satellites. NBEs thus have basic differences from ordinary lightning discharges, which occur in flashes lasting up to a fraction of a second, carry significant current in a “stroke” only after a leader stage that prepares the conductive channel, and produce copious light that is recordable from space. Thus, the authors are motivated to determine whether the meteorological setting of NBEs differs from, or is similar to, that of ordinary lightning. A previous paper started this project of comparing NBEs with ordinary lightning by comparing the placement of either type of lightning within spatial structures of cloud depth, as revealed by infrared cloud-top temperature. That previous study employed lightning data from the Los Alamos Sferic Array (LASA) in Florida. The present paper extends this approach to comparing LASA NBEs with ordinary lightning events’ spatial relationships to radiometric cloud imagery from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) 85-GHz channels. This form of radiometric imagery reveals the location of deep, active convective cores with more acute spatial selectivity than does the infrared cloud-top temperature. It was found that the behaviors of NBEs and ordinary lighting are, once again, indistinguishable, but with regard this time to proximity to deep convective cores as revealed by TMI.

Strong electric fields from positive lightning strokes in the stratosphere

A balloon payload launched in Brazil has measured vector electric fields from lightning at least an order of magnitude larger than previously reported above 30 km in the stratosphere. During the flight hundreds of lightning events were recorded, including several positive cloud to ground lightning strokes. A two stroke flash, with small (15 kA peak current) and moderate (53 kA) positive strokes at a horizontal range of 34 km, produced field changes over 140 V/m at 34 km altitude. On‐board optical lightning detection, recorded with GPS timing, coupled with ground based lightning location gives high time resolution for study of the electric field transient propagation. These measurements imply that lightning electric fields in the mesosphere over large thunderstorms may be much larger than previously measured.

Space–Time Characteristics of Light Transmitted through Dense Clouds: A Green's Function Analysis

Here, previous work using photon diffusion theory to describe radiative transfer through dense plane-parallel clouds at nonabsorbing wavelengths is extended. The focus is on the scaling of space- and time-domain moments for transmitted light with respect to cloud thickness H and optical depth τ; and the new results are as follows: accurate prefactors for asymptotic scaling, preasymptotic correction terms in closed form, 3D effects for internal variability in τ, and the rms transit time or pathlength. Mean pathlength is ∝H for dimensional reasons and, from random-walk theory, we already know that it is also ∝(1 – g)τ for large enough τ (g being the asymmetry factor). Here, it is shown that the prefactor is precisely 1/2 and that corrections are significant for (1 – g)τ < 10, which includes most actual boundary layer clouds. It is also shown that rms pathlength is not much larger than the mean for transmittance (its prefactor is ≈ 0.59); this proves that, in sharp contrast with reflection, pathlength distributions are quite narrow in transmission. If the light originates from a steady point source on a cloud boundary, a fuzzy spot is observed on the opposite boundary. This problem is formally mapped to the pulsed source problem, and it is shown that the rms radius of this spot slowly approaches H as τ increases; it is also shown that the transmitted spot shape has a flat top and an exponential tail. Because all preasymptotic corrections are computed here, the diffusion results are accurate when compared to Monte Carlo counterparts for τ ≥ 5, whereas the classic scaling relations apply only for τ ≥ 70, assuming g = 0.85. The temporal quantities shed light on observed absorption properties and optical lightning waveforms. The spatial quantity controls the three-dimensional radiative smoothing process in transmission, which was recently observed in spectral analyses of time series of zenith radiance at 725 nm. Opportunities in ground-based cloud remote sensing using the new developments are described and illustrated with simulations of 3D solar radiative transfer in realistic models of stratocumulus. Finally, since this analytical diffusion study applies only to weakly variable stratus layers, extensions to more complex cloud systems using anomalous diffusion theory are discussed.