Optical Depth Scale Research Articles

JWST Observations of Young protoStars (JOYS+): Detecting icy complex organic molecules and ions

Context. Complex organic molecules (COMs) are ubiquitously detected in the gas phase and thought to be mostly formed on icy grains. Nevertheless, there have not been any unambiguous detections of COMs larger than CH3OH in ices reported thus far. Exploring this matter in greater detail has now become possible with the unprecedented possibilities offered by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) within the infrared (IR) spectral range with its very high sensitivity and spectral resolution in the critical 5–10 µm range, the fingerprint region of oxygen-bearing COMs. Aims. In the JWST Observations of Young protoStars (JOYS+) program, more than 30 protostars are undergoing observation with the Medium Resolution Spectrograph (MRS) of the Mid-IR Instrument (MIRI). The goal of this study is to comprehensively explore the COMs ice signatures in one low- and one high-mass protostar: NGC 1333 IRAS 2A and IRAS 23385+6053, respectively. Methods. We performed global continuum and silicate subtractions of the MIRI-MRS spectra, followed by a local continuum subtraction in optical depth scale in the range around 6.8 and 8.6 µm, the ice COM fingerprint region. We explored different choices for the local continuum and silicate subtraction. Next, we fit the observational data with a large sample of available IR laboratory ice spectra. We used the ENIIGMA fitting tool, a genetic algorithm-based code that not only finds the best fit between the lab data and the observations, but also performs a statistical analysis of the solutions, such as deriving the confidence intervals and quantifying fit degeneracy. Results. We report the best fits for the spectral ranges between 6.8 and 8.6 µm in NGC 1333 IRAS 2A and IRAS 23385+6053, originating from simple molecules and COMs, as well as negative ions. Overall, we find that ten chemical species are needed to reproduce the astronomical data. The strongest feature in this range (7.7 µm) is dominated by CH4, with contributions from SO2 and OCN−. Our results indicate that the 7.2 and 7.4 µm bands are mostly dominated by HCOO−. We also find statistically robust detections of COMs based on multiple bands, most notably, CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, and CH3OCHO. We also report a likely detection of CH3COOH. Based on the ice column density ratios between CH3CH2OH and CH3CHO of NGC 1333 IRAS 2A and IRAS 23385+6053, we find compelling evidence that these COMs are formed on icy grains. Finally, the derived ice abundances for NGC 1333 IRAS 2A correlate well with those in comet 67P/GC within a factor of 5. Conclusions. Based on the high-quality JWST (MIRI-MRS) spectra, we conclude that COMs are present in interstellar ices, thus providing additional proof for the solid-state origin of these species in star-forming regions. In addition, the good correlation between the ice abundances in comet 67P and NGC 1333 IRAS 2A is fully in line with the idea that cometary COMs may be inherited from the early protostellar phases to a significant extent.

Resonant dipole-dipole interactions in electromagnetically induced transparency

Resonant dipole-dipole interaction (RDDI) is ubiquitous in light-matter interacting systems and is responsible for many fascinating properties of collective radiations. Here we theoretically investigate the role of RDDI in electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT). The resonant dipole-dipole interactions manifest in the cooperative spontaneous emission of the probe light transition, which give rise a broadened linewidth and associated collective frequency shift. This cooperative linewidth originates from the nonlocal and long-range RDDI, which can be determined by the atomic density, optical depth, and macroscopic length scales of the atomic ensemble. We present that EIT spectroscopy essentially demonstrates all-order multiple scattering of RDDI. Furthermore, we find that EIT transparency window becomes narrower as the cooperative linewidth increases, which essentially reduces the storage efficiency of slow light as EIT-based quantum memory application.

Numerical Assessment of Downward Incoming Solar Irradiance in Smoke Influenced Regions—A Case Study in Brazilian Amazon and Cerrado

Smoke aerosol plumes generated during the biomass burning season in Brazil suffer long-range transport, resulting in large aerosol optical depths over an extensive domain. As a consequence, downward surface solar irradiance, and in particular the direct component, can be significantly reduced. Accurate solar energy assessments considering the radiative contribution of biomass burning aerosols are required to support Brazil’s solar power sector. This work presents the 2nd generation of the radiative transfer model BRASIL-SR, developed to improve the aerosol representation and reduce the uncertainties in surface solar irradiance estimates in cloudless hazy conditions and clean conditions. Two numerical experiments allowed to assess the model’s skill using observational or regional MERRA-2 reanalysis AOD data in a region frequently affected by smoke. Four ground measurement sites provided data for the model output validation. Results for DNI obtained using δ-Eddington scaling and without scaling are compared, with the latter presenting the best skill in all sites and for both experiments. An increase in the relative error of DNI results obtained with δ-Eddington optical depth scaling as AOD increases is evidenced. For DNI, MBD deviations ranged from −2.3 to −0.5%, RMSD between 2.3 and 4.7% and OVER between 0 and 5.3% when using in-situ AOD data. Overall, our results indicate a good skill of BRASIL-SR for the estimation of both GHI and DNI.

Tomography of cool giant and supergiant star atmospheres

Context. Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are characterized by substantial mass loss, however the mechanism behind it not yet fully understood. The knowledge of the structure and dynamics of AGB-star atmospheres is crucial to better understanding the mass loss. The recently established tomographic method, which relies on the design of spectral masks containing lines that form in given ranges of optical depths in the stellar atmosphere, is an ideal technique for this purpose. Aims. We aim to validate the capability of the tomographic method in probing different geometrical depths in the stellar atmosphere and recovering the relation between optical and geometrical depth scales. Methods. We applied the tomographic method to high-resolution spectro-interferometric VLTI/AMBER observations of the Mira-type AGB star S Ori. The interferometric visibilities were extracted at wavelengths contributing to the tomographic masks and fitted to those computed from a uniform disk model. This allows us to measure the geometrical extent of the atmospheric layer probed by the corresponding mask. We then compared the observed atmospheric extension with others measured from available 1D pulsation CODEX models and 3D radiative-hydrodynamics CO5BOLD simulations. Results. While the average optical depths probed by the tomographic masks in S Ori decrease (with ⟨log τ0⟩ = −0.45, − 1.45, and − 2.45 from the innermost to the central and outermost layers), the angular diameters of these layers increase, from 10.59 ± 0.09 mas through 11.84 ± 0.17 mas, up to 14.08 ± 0.15 mas. A similar behavior is observed when the tomographic method is applied to 1D and 3D dynamical models. Conclusions. This study derives, for the first time, a quantitative relation between optical and geometrical depth scales when applied to the Mira star S Ori, or to 1D and 3D dynamical models. In the context of Mira-type stars, knowledge of the link between the optical and geometrical depths opens the way to deriving the shock-wave propagation velocity, which cannot be directly observed in these stars.

A new spectroscopic method for measuring the temperature gradient in the solar photosphere

Context. The contribution of quiet-Sun regions to the solar irradiance variability is currently unclear. Certain solar-cycle variations of the quiet-Sun’s physical structure, such as the temperature gradient, might affect the irradiance. Accurate measurements of this quantity over the course of the activity cycle would improve our understanding of long-term irradiance variations. Aims. In a previous work, we introduced and successfully tested a new spectroscopic method for measuring the photospheric temperature gradient directly on a geometric scale in the case of non-magnetic regions. In this paper, we generalize this method for moderately magnetized regions that may be encountered in the quiet solar photosphere. Methods. To simulate spectroscopic observations, we used synthetic Stokes profiles I and V of the magnetic FeI 630.15 nm line and intensity profiles of the non-magnetic FeI 709 nm line computed from realistic three-dimensional magneto-hydrodynamical simulations of the photospheric granulation and line radiative transfer under local thermodynamical equilibrium conditions. We then obtained maps at different levels in the line-wings by convolution with the instrumental point spread function (PSF) under various conditions of atmospheric turbulence – with and without correction by an adaptive optics (AO) system. The PSF were obtained with the PAOLA software and the AO performance is inspired by the system that will be operating on the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. Results. We considered different conditions of atmospheric turbulence and photospheric regions with different mean magnetic strengths of 100 G and 200 G. As in non-magnetic cases studied in our previous work, the image correction by the AO system is mandatory for obtaining accurate measurements of the temperature gradient. We show that the non-magnetic line at 709 nm may be safely used in all the cases we have investigated. However, the intensity profile of the magnetic-sensitive line is broadened by the Zeeman effect, which would bias our temperature-gradient measurement. We thus implemented a correction procedure of the line profile for this magnetic broadening in the case of weakly magnetized regions. In doing so, we remarked that in the weak-field regime, the right- and left-hand (I + V and I − V) components have similar shapes, however, they are shifted in opposite directions due to the Zeeman effect. We thus reconstructed the intensity profile by shifting back the I + V and I − V profiles and by adding the re-centered profiles. The measurement then proceeds as in the non-magnetic case. We find that this correction procedure is efficient in regions where the mean magnetic strength is smaller or on the order of 100 G. Conclusions. The new method we implement here may be used to measure the temperature gradient in the quiet Sun from ground-based telescopes equipped with an efficient AO system. We stress that we derive the gradient on a geometrical scale and not on an optical-depth scale as we would do with other standard methods. This allows us to avoid any confusion due to the effect of temperature variations on the continuum opacity in the solar photosphere.

On the feasibility of using ceilometer backscatter profile as input data for skyglow simulation

Atmospheric conditions can significantly affect the sky brightness originating from artificial lights. Previous works studied the cloudiness, cloud base height, optical depth of cloud, aerosol optical depth and aerosol scale height as atmospheric parameters affecting night sky brightness. Instead of using these parameters as a simplification of the real cloud and aerosol profile, we processed the raw backscatter data of a laser ceilometer instrument. Sky brightness was obtained from camera images available at the same meteorological observation site. Case studies are shown in selected cases, where we analyzed the correspondences with the backscatter data and the camera images. We performed Monte Carlo simulations with the dominant light sources to verify the numerical predictions of sky radiances. Although the limitations of the ceilometer device to obtain optical properties of the atmosphere, ceilometers provide valuable source of data for evaluation of the light pollution measurements.

Spectrally‐ and Temporally‐Resolved Optical Depth Measurements in High Explosive Post‐Detonation Fireballs

AbstractTemporally‐and‐spectrally‐resolved‐optical‐depth‐measurements were made in fireballs from five common high explosives. Chambered explosive detonations were probed with 405 nm, 532 nm, 650 nm, 1310 nm, and 9600 nm laser light to quantify optical attenuation during the first 5 ms after initiation. Attenuation lengths are reported for each wavelength and high explosive as a function of time. Two charge sizes were studied to show optical depth scaling for charge mass. Trends in optical depth between type of explosive and probe wavelength are presented and discussed. The spectral dependence of attenuation departed strongly from the prediction from Rayleigh scattering, indicating significant absorption in addition to scattering. Beam steering effects were determined to be of minimal influence for the scale of explosives tested. Blast scaling is considered in attempt to generalize the results presented.

Optical depth in polarised Monte Carlo radiative transfer

Context. The Monte Carlo method is the most widely used method to solve radiative transfer problems in astronomy, especially in a fully general 3D geometry. A crucial concept in any Monte Carlo radiative transfer code is the random generation of the next interaction location. In polarised Monte Carlo radiative transfer with aligned non-spherical grains, the nature of dichroism complicates the concept of optical depth. Aims. We investigate, in detail, the relation between optical depth and the optical properties and density of the attenuating medium in polarised Monte Carlo radiative transfer codes that take dichroic extinction into account. Methods. Based on solutions for the radiative transfer equation, we discuss the optical depth scale in polarised radiative transfer with spheroidal grains. We compare the dichroic optical depth to the extinction and total optical depth scale. Results. In a dichroic medium, the optical depth is not equal to the usual extinction optical depth, nor to the total optical depth. For representative values of the optical properties of dust grains, the dichroic optical depth can differ from the extinction or total optical depth by several tens of percent. A closed expression for the dichroic optical depth cannot be given, but it can be derived efficiently through an algorithm that is based on the analytical result corresponding to elongated grains with a uniform grain alignment. Conclusions. Optical depth is more complex in dichroic media than in systems without dichroic attenuation, and this complexity needs to be considered when generating random free path lengths in Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations. There is no benefit in using approximations instead of the dichroic optical depth.

On the Computation of Apparent Direct Solar Radiation

Abstract Near-forward-scattered radiation coming from the vicinity of the sun’s direction impacts the interpretation of measurements of direct solar radiation by pyrheliometers and sun photometers, and it is also relevant for concentrating solar technology applications. Here, a Monte Carlo radiative transfer model is employed to study the apparent direct solar transmittance t(α), that is, the transmittance measured by an instrument that receives the radiation within a half-field-of-view (half-FOV) angle α from the center of the solar disk, for various ice cloud, water cloud, and aerosol cases. The contribution of scattered radiation to t(α) increases with increasing particle size, and it also depends strongly on ice crystal morphology. The Monte Carlo calculations are compared with a simple approach, in which t(α) is estimated through Beer’s law, using a scaled optical depth that excludes the part of the phase function corresponding to scattering angles smaller than α. Overall, this optical depth scaling approach works very well, although with some degradation of the performance for ice clouds for very small half-FOV angles (α < 0.5°–1°), and in optically thick cases. The errors can be reduced by fine-tuning the optical depth scaling factors based on the Monte Carlo results. Parameterizations are provided for computing the optical depth scaling factors for water clouds, ice clouds, aerosols, and for completeness, Rayleigh scattering to allow for a simple calculation of t(α). It is also shown that the optical depth scaling used in delta-two-stream approximations is inappropriate for simulating the direct solar radiation received by pyrheliometers.

The Stagger-grid: A grid of 3D stellar atmosphere models

We study the implications of averaging methods with different reference depth scales for 3D hydrodynamical model atmospheres computed with the Stagger-code. The temporally and spatially averaged (hereafter denoted as <3D>) models are explored in the light of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) spectral line formation by comparing spectrum calculations using full 3D atmosphere structures with those from <3D> averages. We explore methods for computing mean <3D> stratifications from the Stagger-grid time-dependent 3D radiative hydro- dynamical atmosphere models by considering four different reference depth scales (geometrical depth, column-mass density, and two optical depth scales). Furthermore, we investigate the influence of alternative averages (logarithmic or enforced hydrostatic equilibrium, flux-weighted temperatures). For the line formation we compute curves of growth for Fe i and Fe ii lines in LTE . The resulting <3D> stratifications for the four reference depth scales can be considerably different. We find typically that in the upper atmosphere and in the superadiabatic region just below the optical surface, where the temperature and density fluctuations are highest, the differences become considerable and increase for higher Teff, lower logg, and lower [Fe/H]. The differential comparison of spectral line formation shows distinctive differences depending on which <3D> model is applied. The averages over layers of constant column-mass density yield the best mean <3D> representation for LTE line formation, while the averages on layers at constant geometrical height are the least appropriate. Unexpectedly, the usually preferred averages over layers of constant optical depth are prone to the increasing interference of the reversed granulation towards higher effective temperature, in particular at low metallicity.

SN 2002bu—ANOTHER SN 2008S-LIKE TRANSIENT

We observed SN2002bu in the near-IR with the Hubble Space Telescope, the mid-IR with the Spitzer Space Telescope and in X-rays with Swift 10 years after the explosion. If the faint L_H\sim100 Lsun HST near-IR source at the transient position is the near-IR counterpart of SN2002bu, then the source has dramatically faded between 2004 and 2012, from L\sim10^6.0 Lsun to L\sim10^4.5 Lsun. It is still heavily obscured, tau_V\sim5 in graphitic dust models, with almost all the energy radiated in the mid-IR. The radius of the dust emission is increasing as R\simt^(0.7+/-0.4) and the optical depth is dropping as tau_V\simt^(-1.3+/-0.4). The evolution expected for an expanding shell of material, tau_V\sim1/t^2, is ruled out at approximately 2 sigma while the tau_V\simt^(-0.8) to t^(-1) optical depth scaling for a shock passing through a pre-existing wind is consistent with the data. If the near-IR source is a chance superposition, the present day source can be moderately more luminous, significantly more obscured and evolving more slowly. While we failed to detect X-ray emission, the X-ray flux limits are consistent with the present day emissions being powered by an expanding shock wave. SN2002bu is clearly a member of the SN2008S class of transients, but continued monitoring of the evolution of the spectral energy distribution is needed to conclusively determine the nature of the transient.

Effective Radius of Ice Particles in Cirrus and Contrails

Abstract This paper discusses the ratio C between the volume mean radius and the effective radius of ice particles in cirrus and contrails. The volume mean radius is proportional to the third root of the ratio between ice water content and number of ice particles, and the effective radius measures the ratio between ice particle volume and projected cross-sectional area. For given ice water content and number concentration of ice particles, the optical depth scales linearly with C. Hence, C is an important input parameter for radiative forcing estimates. The ratio C in general depends strongly on the particle size distribution (PSD) and on the particle habits. For constant habits, C can be factored into a PSD and a habit factor. The PSD factor is generally less than one, while the habit factor is larger than one for convex or concave ice particles with random orientation. The value of C may get very small for power-law PSDs with exponent n between −4 and 0, which is often observed. For such PSDs, most of the particle volume is controlled by a few large particles, while most of the cross-sectional area is controlled by the many small particles. A new particle habit mix for contrail cirrus including small droxtal-shape particles is suggested. For measured cirrus and contrails, the dependence of C on volume mean particle radius, ambient humidity, and contrail age is determined. For cirrus, C varies typically between 0.4 and 1.1. In contrails, C = 0.7 ± 0.3, with uncertainty ranges increasing with the volume radius and contrail age. For the small particles in young contrails, the extinction efficiency in the solar range deviates considerably from the geometric optics limit.

An uncombed inversion of multiwavelength observations reproducing the net circular polarization in a sunspot’s penumbra

Context. The penumbra of sunspots has a complex magnetic field topology whose three-dimensional organization remains unclear after more than a century of investigation.Aims. I derive a geometrical model of the penumbral magnetic field topology from an uncombed inversion setup designed to reproduce the net circular polarization (NCP) of simultaneous spectra in near-infrared (IR; 1.56 μ m) and visible (VIS; 630 nm) spectral lines.Methods. I inverted the co-spatial spectra of five photospheric lines with a model that mimicked vertically interlaced magnetic fields with two distinct components, labeled background field and flow channels because of their characteristic properties (flow velocity, field inclination). The flow channels were modeled as a perturbation of the constant background field with a Gaussian shape using the SIRGAUS code. The location and extension of the Gaussian perturbation in the optical depth scale retrieved by the inversion code were then converted to a geometrical height scale. By estimating the geometrical size of the flow channels, I investigated the relative amount of magnetic flux in the flow channels and the background field atmosphere.Results. The uncombed model is able to reproduce the NCP well on the limb side of the spot and less successfully on the center side; the VIS lines are better reproduced than the near-IR lines. I find that the Evershed flow happens along nearly horizontal field lines close to the solar surface given by optical depth unity. The magnetic flux that is related to the flow channels constitutes about 20−50% of the total magnetic flux in the penumbra. Conclusions. The gradients that can be produced by a Gaussian perturbation are too small for a perfect reproduction of the NCP in the IR lines with their small formation height range, where a step function seems to be required. Two peculiarities of the observed NCP, a sign change in the NCP of the VIS lines on the center side and a ring structure around the umbra with opposite signs of the NCP in the Ti i line at 630.37 nm and the Fe i line at 1565.2 nm, deserve closer attention in future modeling attempts. The large fraction of magnetic flux related to the flow channel component could suffice to replenish the penumbral radiative losses in the flux tube picture.

A GEOMETRICAL HEIGHT SCALE FOR SUNSPOT PENUMBRAE

Inversions of spectropolarimetric observations of penumbral filaments deliver the stratification of different physical quantities in an optical depth scale. However, without establishing a geometrical height scale their three-dimensional geometrical structure can not be derived. This is crucial in understanding the correct spatial variation of physical properties in the penumbral atmosphere and to provide insights into the mechanism capable of explaining the observed penumbral brightness. The aim of this work is to determine a global geometrical height scale in the penumbra by minimizing the divergence of the magnetic field vector and the deviations from static equilibrium as imposed by a force balance equation that includes pressure gradients, gravity and the Lorentz force. Optical depth models are derived from the SIR inversion of spectropolarimetric data of an active region observed with SOT on-board the Hinode satellite. We use a genetic algorithm to determine the boundary condition for the inference of geometrical heights. The retrieved geometrical height scale permits the evaluation of the Wilson depression at each pixel and the correlation of physical quantities at each height. Our results fit into the uncombed penumbral scenario, i.e., a penumbra composed of flux tubes with channelled mass flow and with a weaker and more horizontal magnetic field as compared with the background field. The ascending material is hotter and denser than their surroundings. We do not find evidence of overturning convection or field free regions in the inner penumbral area analyzed. The penumbral brightness can be explained by the energy transfer of the ascending mass carried by the Evershed flow, if the physical quantities below z=-75km are extrapolated from the results of the inversion.

Measuring Magnetic Fields in Ultracool Stars and Brown Dwarfs

We present a new method for direct measurement of magnetic fields on ultracool stars and brown dwarfs. It takes advantage of the Wing-Ford band of FeH, which are seen throughout the M and L spectral types. These molecular features are not as blended as other optical molecular bands, are reasonably strong through most of the spectral range, and exhibit a response to magnetic fields which is easier to detect than other magnetic diagnostics, including the usual optical and near-infrared atomic spectral lines that have heretofore been employed. The FeH bands show a systematic growth as the star gets cooler. We do not find any contamination by CrH in the relevant spectral region. We are able to model cool and rapidly-rotating spectra from warmer, slowly-rotating spectra utilizing an interpolation scheme based on optical depth scaling. We show that the FeH features can distinguish between negligible, moderate, and high magnetic fluxes on low-mass dwarfs, with a current accuracy of about one kilogauss. Two different approaches to extracting the information from the spectra are developed and compared. Which one is superior depends on a number of factors. We demostrate the validity of our new procedures by comparing the spectra of three M stars whose magnetic fluxes are already known from atomic line analysis. The low and high field stars are used to produce interpolated moderate-strength spectra which closely resemble the moderate-field star. The assumption of linear behavior for the magnetic effects appears to be reasonable, but until the molecular constants are better understood the method is subject to that assumption, and rather approximate. Nonetheless, it opens a new regime of very low-mass objects to direct confirmation and testing of their magnetic dynamos.

Is the Number of Giant Arcs in ΛCDM Consistent with Observations?

We use high-resolution N-body simulations to study the galaxy-cluster cross sections and the abundance of giant arcs in the Lambda CDM model. Clusters are selected from the simulations using the friends-of-friends method, and their cross sections for forming giant arcs are analyzed. The background sources are assumed to follow a uniform ellipticity distribution from 0 to 0.5 and to have an area identical to a circular source with diameter 1. We find that the optical depth scales as the source redshift approximately as tau(1) = 2.25 x 10(-6)/[1 + (z(s)/3.14)(-3.42)] (0.6 3. The optical depth is sensitive to the source redshift, in qualitative agreement with Wambsganss et al. ( 2004). However, our overall optical depth appears to be only similar to 10% - 70% of those from previous studies. The differences can be mostly explained by the different power spectrum normalizations (sigma(8)) used and different ways of determining the L/W ratio. Finite source size and ellipticity have modest effects on the optical depth. We also found that the number of highly magnified (with magnification vertical bar mu vertical bar > 10) and undistorted'' images (with L/W 10 and L/W > 10. We conclude that our predicted rate of giant arcs may be lower than the observed rate, although the precise discrepancy'' is still unclear due to uncertainties in both theory and observations.

Influence of magnification threshold on pixel lensing optical depth, event rate and time scale distributions towards M 31

Pixel lensing is the gravitational microlensing of light from unresolved stars contributing to the luminosity flux collected by a single pixel. A star must be sufficiently magnified, that is, the lens impact parameter must be less than a threshold value u T if the excess photon flux in a pixel is to be detected over the background. Assuming the parameters of the Isaac Newton Telescope and typical observing conditions, we present maps in the sky plane towards M 31 of threshold impact parameter, optical depth, event number and event time scale, analyzing in particular how these quantities depend on u T in pixel lensing searches. We use an analytical approach consisting of averaging on u T and the star column density the optical depth, microlensing rate and event duration time scale. An overall decrease in the expected optical depth and event number with respect to the classical microlensing results is found, particularly towards the high luminosity M 31 inner regions. As expected, pixel lensing events towards the inner region of M 31 are mostly due to self-lensing, while in the outer region dark events dominate even for a 20% MACHO halo fraction. We also find a far-disk/near-disk asymmetry in the expected event number, smaller than that found by [CITE]. Both for self and dark lensing events, the pixel lensing time scale we obtain is $\simeq$$1{-}7$ days, dark events lasting roughly twice as long as self-lensing events. The shortest events are found to occur towards the M 31 South Semisphere. We also note that the pixel lensing results depend on $\langle u_{\rm T} \rangle$ and $\langle u_{\rm T}^{~2} \rangle$ values and ultimately on the observing conditions and telescope capabilities.

G-band spectral synthesis and diagnostics of simulated solar magneto-convection

Realistic simulations of radiative magneto-convection in the solar (sub)photosphere are used for a spectral synthesis of Fraunhofer's G band, which is dominated by spectral lines from the CH molecule. It is found that the spatial pattern of integrated G-band brightness closely matches the spatial structure of magnetic flux concentrations in the convective downflow regions. The brightness contrast is mainly caused by the weakening of CH lines due to the reduced CH abundance and the resulting shift of the optical depth scale in the hot and tenuous magnetic flux concentrations. Various properties of the synthetic brightness images agree well with G-band observations. These results lends credit to the observational usage of G-band bright features as proxies for magnetic flux concentrations in the solar photosphere. However, the converse is only correct in a limited sense: only a fraction of the magnetic flux concentrations turn out to be bright in the G band.

Lagrangian and Eulerian Stratifications of Acoustic Oscillations through the Solar Photosphere

We evaluate the stratification of acoustic oscillations in the solar photosphere in both the Lagrangian (comoving) frame of reference and the Eulerian (inertial) frame of reference, from a temporal sequence of model atmospheres in an optical depth scale obtained after a quasi-non-LTE inversion of the radiative transfer equation applied to spectral observations of the K I 7699 A line. Our results suggest that, to first order, the photosphere moves up and down as a whole with amplitudes ranging from ~8 km in deep layers (around 0 km) to ~19 km in the upper layers (around 640 km). In Lagrangian coordinates, we observe numerous short-lived, local temperature and velocity amplitude enhancements in medium-high layers, together with asymmetric waveforms in the oscillation of these two physical quantities. The Lagrangian temperature oscillation clearly shows two nodes associated with sharp phase jumps of about 180°, whereas the velocity amplitude shows the well-known increase with geometrical height, at nearly constant phase. In Eulerian coordinates, the perturbations are dominated by the coherent oscillation of the entire photosphere.

NLTE solar flare models with stationary velocity fields

A method of calculating NLTE models of a plan-parallel solar flare atmosphere with stationary plasma flows is presented. To solve the radiative trans- fer equation, equations of statistical equilibrium (ESE) and the stationary momentum equation, we use the mul- tilevel approximate lambda iteration (MALI) approach. The numerical code is based on the method recently de- veloped by Rybicky & Hummer (1991, 1992) and allows to take into account macroscopic velocity elds in observer's frame formulation. The preconditioned ESE, constructed by this method, are nally linearized with respect to level populations and electron densities to treat the the hydro- gen ionization balance. The numerical code based on this method is used to compute a grid of NLTE flare models with various velocity elds in order to show the influence of the velocity elds on the H-line asymmetries. The analysis of the results lead to conclusions that would improve interpretations of flare line asymmetries: 1) The velocities aect the level populations, 2) The type of asymmetry depends on the changes in the optical depth scales and on the run of the source function in the atmo- sphere. 3) A monotonous velocity aects only one wing of the line prole. 4) To get the velocity eld from an observed prole the bisector method should be modied.