Space Operations Research Articles

Dual-Use “New Space”: US Experience

The article explores the growing involvement of private space companies in military activities, with a primary focus on the United States. It delves into the specific contributions of private entities to national defense missions, particularly in the militarization of outer space. The authors analyze the strategic interests of government agencies in integrating non-state actors to enhance space capabilities, such as communication, Earth observation, situational awareness, and in-orbit servicing. The paper also assesses the potential implications of these trends for international security, highlighting the complexities that arise from the blurred lines between civil and military space operations. It points to the creation of the U.S. Commercial Augmentation Space Reserve (CASR), an initiative aimed at enhancing defense through commercial space partnerships, and discusses the operational and strategic challenges of managing vast satellite constellations. Additionally, the article reflects on the security risks posed by the militarization of commercial space infrastructure, examining the potential consequences for geopolitical stability and the future of space conflict management. Finally, it suggests that further research and regulatory measures are necessary to mitigate the military threats linked to the New Space

Pose-Constrained Control of Proximity Maneuvering for Tracking and Observing Noncooperative Targets with Unknown Acceleration

This paper proposes a pose control scheme of for proximity maneuvering for tracking and observing noncooperative targets with unknown acceleration, which is an important prerequisite for on-orbit operations in space. It mainly consists of a finite-time extended state observer and constraint processing procedures. Firstly, relative pose-coupled kinematics and dynamics models with unknown integrated disturbances are established based on dual quaternion representations. Then, a finite-time extended state observer is designed using the super-twisting algorithm to estimate the integrated disturbances. Both observation field of view and collision avoidance pose-constrained models are constructed to ensure that the service spacecraft continuously and safely observes the target during proximity maneuvering. And the constraint models are further incorporated into the design of artificial potential function with a unique minimum. After that, the proportional–derivative-like pose-constrained tracking control law is proposed based on the estimated disturbances and the gradient of the artificial potential function. Finally, the effectiveness of the control scheme is verified through numerical simulations.

Simple arithmetic operation in latent space can generate a novel three-dimensional graph metamaterials

Recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI)-based design strategies for metamaterials have revolutionized the creation of customizable architectures spanning nano- to macro-scale dimensions. However, their increasing complexity poses challenges in generating diverse metamaterials, hindering widespread adoption. Here, we introduce an innovative design strategy for three-dimensional graph metamaterials through simple arithmetic operations within the latent space. By leveraging carefully designed hidden representations of disentangled latent space and diffusion processes, our method unravels design space complexity, generating diverse graph metamaterials with comprehensive understanding. This versatile methodology facilitates the creation of graph metamaterials ranging from repetitive lattices to functionally graded materials. We believe that this methodology represents a foundational step in advancing our comprehension of the intricate latent design space, offering the potential to establish a unified model for various traditional generative models in the realm of graph metamaterials.

LIDAR adaptive parameters selection and target pointing control for close-proximity space operations

This paper deals with advanced Guidance, Navigation and Control (GNC) functions required to enable autonomous and safe operations of a chaser spacecraft in close-proximity to an uncooperative space target, as in Active Debris Removal or On-Orbit servicing scenarios. Specifically, it presents an original approach to autonomously and adaptively select the field of view and resolution of a scanning LIDAR to improve both state estimation accuracy and computational efficiency of a LIDAR-based relative navigation system. In general, the correct operation of such system is also determined by the capability to keep the boresight axis of the relative navigation sensor aligned with the target geometric center. To address this task, an original control technique, based on the sliding-mode formulation and relying on a reduced attitude representation, is proposed. This control scheme is also compared to state-of-the-art PD and PID approaches in terms of pointing accuracy and control effort. The proposed techniques have been numerically validated in a simulation environment integrating the chaser attitude control and the LIDAR-based relative navigation functions in a closed-loop architecture. The simulation environment realistically reproduces the generation of LIDAR-based point clouds, and the spacecraft relative dynamics in close proximity. Results show that the adaptive selection of the LIDAR operational parameters improves the relative navigation performance, while the proposed sliding-mode control guarantees higher pointing accuracy than PD and PID control approaches.

A novel physics-based computational framework to model spacecraft solar array power under degradation: application to European Space Agency (ESA) Cluster mission

Accurate modeling and simulation (M&S) of spacecraft solar array power under degradation is essential for mission planning, remaining useful life assessment, and lifetime extension. A relevant example is ESA’s Cluster spacecraft fleet, launched in 2000 and operated at the European Space Operation Centre (ESOC), whose solar arrays have suffered severe degradation due to space radiation that has caused challenges to routine operations and mission planning. However, currently available physics-based and machine learning models have been proven ineffective in modeling the drastic reduction in power generation over the long operational life of the spacecraft.In response to these limitations, this work introduces a framework to model solar array degradation and predict power generation. It embeds a novel simplified physics-based model and a meta-heuristic optimization algorithm which exploits domain-specific knowledge and monitoring data for robust model parameter calibration and accurate power generation predictions. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed approach in avoiding overfitting and providing an accurate estimate of Cluster solar array power evolution.

An insight on technical regulations for new activities in space

Space Traffic Management (STM) is becoming increasingly important as new space activities emerge, such as mega-constellations, on-orbit servicing etc. These developments, although promising great advances, nevertheless present complicated issues that demand stringent technical constraints. Effective STM necessitates extensive rules to ensure the safety, sustainability, and orderly execution of space operations. This research emphasizes the critical need for updated technical regulations that address the operational complexities involved with these new activities. It seeks to build a secure and collaborative space environment by establishing detailed legislative frameworks and emphasizing international cooperation, so ensuring the long-term profitability and success of space exploration and usage. Through meticulous analysis, the paper identifies regulatory gaps and proposes a robust framework capable of accommodating the evolving landscape of regulations. Drawing upon humanity's collective experience across different domains, the proposed framework aims to foster responsible growth in outer space while safeguarding its integrity for future generations. This paper examines the existing regulatory framework applicable to four distinct categories of New Technologies and Activities in space; identifies gaps where they exist; and suggests a capable and robust regulatory framework. This framework leverages humankind's experience in other domains to nurture and assist responsible growth in the outer space domain while ensuring proper stewardship of that domain, now and in the future. This paper is based on the report prepared by members of working group 4.2 of the Space Traffic Management Committee (TC 26).

The Criminal Code of Mongolia. The General Part. Crime

Introduction. In a number of positions, the Criminal Code of Mongolia is recognized as more progressive than the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Therefore, it is no coincidence that there is a noticeable increase in the number of publications devoted to legislative decisions of the Criminal Code of Mongolia, which are of undoubted interest in scientific discussions on key criminal law issues.General provisions. The Criminal Code opens with Chapter 1 "General provisions", which sets out the goals, principles of the criminal legislation of Mongolia, the rules of its operation in space and time. The Criminal Code of Mongolia enshrines only three principles: legality, justice and guilt. The law explicitly states that it is not allowed to bring a person to criminal responsibility for opinions or beliefs. The issue of the time of commission of ongoing and ongoing crimes has been resolved. The rules on the statute of limitations of a crime have been moved to this chapter.Crime. The foresight of an act in the criminal law is called an indispensable condition for the recognition of an act and omission as criminal, and, in particular, a careless act. The concepts of a continuing crime and an ideal set of crimes are revealed. Only two categories of crimes are fixed: serious and minor. The form of guilt for the purposes of categorization of crimes in the Criminal Code of Mongolia is insignificant. The very forms of guilt (intent and negligence) are named in art. 2.3. At the same time, intent is not divided into types. TheCriminal Code of Mongolia defines the concept of damage and harm caused by a crime. The chapter ends with the regulations on the unfinished crime.Complicity. It is noteworthy that the form of guilt of the crime committed is not specified in the law. A mediocre performer is a person who has committed a crime by using not only a person who has not reached the age from which criminal responsibility begins, an insane person, but also other persons who have not committed a crime in complicity with the perpetrator and do not realize that a crime is being committed, or livestock or other animals. The perpetrator of a crime is also recognized as a person who inclines another person to commit a crime under the influence of physical or mental coercion.Circumstances precluding the criminality of the act. This institution has found regulation in Chapter 4 of the Criminal Code. It can distinguish significant differences from the Russian Criminal Code in regulating necessary defense, extreme necessity, coercion, reasonable risk, and execution of an order.The procedure, grounds for criminal prosecution and exemption from criminal liability. Chapter 6 contains regulatory requirements that define: (1) signs of the subject of the crime – an individual; (2) general rules for bringing to criminal responsibility and (3) special rules for sentencing; (4) rules for exemption from criminal liability and punishment.Liability of legal entities. Chapter 9, which closes the General Part, is devoted to their responsibility, which defines the grounds for bringing legal entities to criminal responsibility; types of criminal liability; guarantees of its inevitability. The basis for the imposition of punishment is the sole or joint decision of authorized officials representing a legal entity, or actions or omissions committed in the interests of a legal entity that contain signs of an appropriate corpus delicti.Conclusions. Modern Mongolian criminal legislation, while maintaining continuity and honoring legal and cultural traditions, has a qualitative originality. The normative prescriptions proposed in it are of interest to Russian criminal law science and the legislator. Undoubtedly, the experience of Mongolian criminal law regulation can and should be taken into account by the domestic legislator.

Decay time estimate for LEO spacecraft

The growing concerns posed by orbital debris represent a serious threat to the future of space operations in low Earth orbit. With the goal of limiting the formation of new debris, space agencies are proposing international guidelines that satellites should be able to deorbiting within 25 years of the end of their operational life. Orbital decay is typically caused by atmospheric drag, so estimating the decay time of a satellite subject to drag is critical to assessing whether the guidelines are met. However, such estimate is a very challenging task because of the difficulty of accurately modeling atmospheric properties and because of the coupling of orbital dynamics with spacecraft attitude. In this paper, a simplified algorithm based on the King-Hele formulation is proposed to rapidly estimate the decay time of an orbiting satellite without imposing any assumptions on the spacecraft’s nominal size, mass, geometry or attitude. The algorithm accounts for the effect of solar activity level variations on atmospheric properties and drag coefficient through an iterative procedure and can be applied to any object in orbit. Numerical tests show that the predictions in terms of decay times are very accurate for satellites that are quite different in size and geometry, including the presence of an aerodynamic drag augmentation system such as a drag sail.

A Study of Cislunar-Based Small Satellite Constellations with Sustainable Autonomy

The Cislunar economy is thriving with innovative space systems and operation techniques to enhance and uplift the traditional approaches significantly. This paper brings about an approach for sustainable small satellite constellations to retain autonomy for long-term missions in the Cislunar space. The methodology presented is to align the hybrid model of the constellation for Earth and Moon as an integral portion of the Cislunar operations. These hybrid constellations can provide a breakthrough in optimally utilizing the Cislunar space to efficiently deploy prominent missions to be operated and avoid conjunction or collisions forming additional debris. Flower and walker constellation patterns have been combined to form a well-defined orientation for these small satellites to operate and deliver the tasks satisfying the mission objectives. The autonomous multi-parametric analysis for each constellation based in Earth and Moon’s environment has been attained with due consideration to local environments. Specifically, the Solar Radiation Pressure (SRP) is a critical constraint in Cislunar operations and is observed during simulations. These are supported by conjunction analysis using the Monte Carlo technique and also the effect of the SRP on the operating small satellites in real-time scenarios. This is followed by the observed conclusions and the way forward in this fiercely competent Cislunar operation.

Flexible curved multi-functional sensors for air flow and vibration signal measurement of train bogie

Abstract The fluid-solid coupling effects with the aerodynamic noise and structural vibration signal have great part in measurement accuracy and fault diagnosis of the train bogie. It is important to collect aerodynamic noise and structural vibration data for safety evaluation and on-line structural health monitoring (SHM) of the bogie, which brings new challenges to the integration and installation of the sensors in the limited space and complicated operation condition of the train bogie. Flexible curved multifunctional sensors (FCMFS) integrated with the hot film and structural vibration sensor units is designed to the air flow and structural vibration measurement of the train bogie. Bogie vibration and wind tunnel test platforms with FCMFS are built to the air flow velocity and vibration data measurement on the bogie surface under different operation conditions. Piezoelectric Polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF) sensors have significant output in the wind tunnel and vibration experiments, and the hot film sensor is only sensitive to the air flow signal. The effect of vibration signal to the hot film sensor could be ignored, which is applied to decouple the aerodynamic noise and structural vibration signals for improving the measurement accuracy of the train bogie. The dynamic performance of FCMFS is verified in Rail Transmit Base of East China Jiaotong University, which is applied to SHM and rapid fault diagnosis of train bogie. The air flow distribution and vibration data are collected to safety assessment and fault diagnosis of train bogie, which would promote the intelligent maintenance level of the train bogie.

Comparative analysis of Vedic multiplier using Vedic sutras with existing multipliers in biomedical application

In today's computer world, a lot of real-time applications require rapid processing units. Arithmetic Logic Units (ALU) and Multiply-Accumulate (MAC) are the fundamental parts of these circuits and are necessary for their effective and rapid operation. The most significant prevalent part of digital signal processing devices is multipliers. The multiplier, adder, and registers need to be changed in order to maintain accuracy and increase execution speed, which will improve the performance of the ALU and MAC. The development of greater multipliers is being given priority for application in processors because of the increasing constraints on latency. To accelerate multiplication, it is essential to develop quicker multipliers. Vedic multipliers are preferred over different current expansions due to their low power consumption, fast operation, and efficient use of space. Vedic mathematics-based algorithms are often utilized to build quick, low-power multipliers. In addition to simulation results, this section covers the four sutras of Vedic mathematics: Urdhva Tiryakbhyam, Ekadhikena Purvena, Ekanyunena Purvena, and Nikhilam. Vedic multipliers are also compared to a variety of modern multipliers, including booth, Wallace, and array multipliers. All of the sutras are evaluated according to area, speed, power, propagation delay, and mean relative error (MRE) in the current research. The results of the study will be applied in the biomedical field.

Café tostado de Costa Rica

This article analyzes the dynamics of the roasted coffee industry in Costa Rica, which has been an innovation in the recent coffee activity. This is evidenced by examining the objectives, strategies and organization of coffee roasting companies in Costa Rica. The article systematizes previous studies on the structure of the roasted coffee industry in Costa Rica, consumer behavior, and information that was extracted from regional analysis cases. The results point to the characterization of the companies, their supply chain, and the operation in the local spaces as contributions to local development. Finally, policy recommendations are made to the institutions and the roasting sector that account for the invigoration of this industry.

Recognition of precession angles of non-cooperative targets based on deep learning with privileged information

With an increasing number of countries engaging in space activities worldwide, space non-cooperative target tracking and identification technology has become a prerequisite for safely conducting space operations. In order to the identify distant non-cooperative targets performing complex motions, this paper proposes a method to recognize difficult parameters by using easily available signal labels as privileged information, which is named Pi-FcResNet. The privileged information is connected to the output end of the network through a fully connected network and coupled with the linear layer of the main network. Through testing, our network achieved a recognition accuracy of 94.45 % for precession angles under high signal-to-noise ratio conditions. After incorporating the Convolutional Block Attention Module (CBAM), our method demonstrates fast fitting speed and robust performance. Testing on experimental data shows that, compared to traditional methods, our approach offers better stability and reproducibility in recognizing micro-motion parameters. This approach of using known information as additional information for deep learning networks holds great potential in the field of feature extraction for space non-cooperative targets undergoing complex motions.

Mesenchymal stem cells arouse myocardial NAD+ metabolism to alleviate microgravity-induced cardiac dysfunction

After prolonged space operations, astronauts showed maladaptive atrophy within mostly left-ventricular myocardium, resulting in cardiac dysfunction. However, the mechanism of cardiac dysfunction under microgravity conditions is unclear, and the relevant prevention and treatment measures also need to be explored. Through simulating the microgravity environment with a tail suspension (TS) model, we found that long-term exposure to microgravity promotes aging of mouse hearts, which is closely related to cardiac dysfunction. The intravenous administration of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) emerged preventive and therapeutic effect against myocardial senescence and the decline in cardiac function. Plasma metabolomics analysis suggests the loss of NAD+ in TS mice and motivated myocardial NAD + metabolism and utilization in ADSCs-treated mice, likely accounting for ADSCs' function. Oral administration of nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN, a NAD + precursor) showed similar therapeutic effect to ADSCs treatment. Collectively, these data implicate the effect of ADSCs in microgravity-induced cardiac dysfunction and provide new therapeutic ideas for aging-related maladaptive cardiac remodeling.

Space Traffic Management: Data Fusion

This article provides an overview of and terminology associated with the topic of data fusion, especially as it relates to, and for the purposes of promoting space sustainability and enabling Space Traffic Coordination (STC) and Space Traffic Management (STM). First, the terminology and organizations (data contributors and aggregators) associated with data fusion is discussed. Next, the various “levels” of data fusion are delineated, and a detailed breakdown of the data levels associated with STC and STM (and indeed all space operations) is provided. The taxonomy of data required for safe collaborative space activities are detailed. And finally, data fusion is explored in the context of STC and STM, including the levels, techniques, data sources, and state representations used. And finally, the benefits and limitations of the various data fusion types and levels are outlined with practical examples provided.

Drafting a Cybersecurity Standard for Outer Space Missions: On Critical Infrastructure, China, and the Indispensability of a Global Inclusive Approach

Despite limited progress within international institutions, the need for articulating a regulatory framework for cyber operations in outer space is becoming a pressing concern. One precondition for regulation is to share cybersecurity and outer-space common terminology that can inform the negotiation of standards, policies and laws. While the UN Institute for Disarmament Research has recently issued a baseline policy glossary, binding technical definitions are missing, and the lack of a binding international cybersecurity regime adds to the obsolescence of a binding outer-space regime tracing back to half a century ago. As the IEEE SA embarks on the drafting of the first-ever technical standard for cybersecure-by- design outer-space missions, scoping and conceptual challenges abound. Technical standards are US-centred, non-binding, engineering-intensive exercises, where lawyers and Asian jurisdictions are only marginally involved; nevertheless, as China’s framework for cybersecurity is refined and its involvement in outer-space policing deepens, its disengagement from Western-driven standard-setting bodies appears unsustainable. Drawing on the specific challenge of defining what makes a cyber system ‘mission-critical’, I expose the necessity to examine how domestic cybersecurity laws from a diverse range of States identify ‘critical’ information infrastructure. Generalising therefrom, I advocate a jurisdictionally inclusive process that combines American supremacy in technical standard-setting for outer-space missions with Chinese normative contributions to cybersecurity regulation, including on data localisation and mandatory multilevel cyber-hygiene requirements. I further argue that involving legal experts from a diverse range of jurisdictions and sociolegal cultures may enhance the global reception of standardisation outputs, thus securing higher degrees of voluntary compliance therewith. This could foster cooperation and promote regional and global satellite cybersecurity.

Concept of a Green Propulsion System for Ioshex, Designed to Perform In-Orbit Randezvous and Docking

ABSTRACT Recent challenges in space access include cost optimization and space debris reduction. The European Space Agency has envisioned the evolution of in-orbit transportation involving re-usable service vehicles, moving payloads from high parking orbits to their target orbits. This concept for orbital infrastructure requires de-risking activities and the development of building blocks, such as standardized interfaces and communication. Mastery of close-proximity operations and docking is essential for the new transportation system. This new branch of space operations represents a good opportunity to introduce more sustainable propulsion solutions, especially given the high costs and uncertain future of hydrazine and its derivatives. IOSHEX, a service spacecraft to be equipped with a green propulsion system utilizing 98% hydrogen peroxide, serves as a reference. This paper presents a design concept for this propulsion system, including trade-off analyses, calculations, and a three-dimensional model integrated with IOSHEX.

International Legal Governance of Space Resources and the Role of National Frameworks: The Case of China

Abstract Following decades long political and legal uncertainty, several space-faring States passed national laws asserting (or reaffirming) private rights on resources extracted in space. This “bottom-up” approach is now shaping the fundamentals of international norms and rules. While the so-called “Artemis Bloc” and the US legislative and policy-making efforts have been examined extensively, what is missing is an in-depth analysis of the stance and response of other major space-faring nations. This article contributes to the scholarship by studying China’s perspective. The article considers the ongoing proliferation of national laws and policy-making efforts and the increased pace of commercialisation in the space sector as the driving force of international law-making. It then notes the absence of a clear-cut national legislation in China governing space operations linked to resource extraction from celestial bodies. The paper argues that China, as a major space-faring and a developing country, is poised to have an assertive voice in international space law-making. It shows how a stronger national legal framework, coupled with international law and policy-making efforts, can elevate China’s contribution in international space law—in particular regarding space resource extraction and utilisation.

A full-scale experimental investigation of natural gas explosion in a 710-m long utility tunnel with multiple pipelines

Natural gas poses significant risks to the safe operation of utility tunnels, which house multiple critical infrastructure systems, including natural gas pipelines. To date, no full-scale gas explosion tests in utility tunnels have been published, and there is ongoing debate about whether pipelines can withstand such explosions. This study presents the first-ever 1:1-scale experiments conducted in a 710-meter-long tunnel with cross-sectional dimensions of 3.2 m × 2.6 m. Three pipelines, each approximately 25 m in length and constructed to industrial standards, were used to investigate potential damage. The experiments comprehensively captured the development of flow fields, including flame images, flame signals, temperature, and overpressure, as well as pipeline responses. Results revealed that variations in overpressure within the combustion region were driven by both positive and negative feedback loops. A significant pressure drop was also observed as airflow passed through a local expansion. The experiments further demonstrated that while pipelines within utility tunnels are unlikely to be directly damaged by gas explosions, accessories such as racks are at high risk of severe destruction. These findings offer essential insights for improving the safety design, construct, and operation of tunnel-like spaces involving flammable gases.

Extended quantum process tomography of logical operations on an encoded bosonic qubit

We demonstrate the use of coherent-state quantum process tomography (csQPT) for a bosonic-mode superconducting circuit. We have enhanced our methodology over previous implementations of csQPT by leveraging Kraus operators and constrained gradient descent to learn the underlying process. We show the results of our method by characterizing a logical quantum gate implemented using displacement and selective number-dependent arbitrary phase operations on an encoded qubit. Our use of csQPT allows for the reconstruction of Kraus operators for the larger Hilbert space rather than being limited to the logical subspace. This approach enables us to more accurately identify and quantify the various error mechanisms that can lead to gate infidelity, including those occurring outside of the computational subspace. We showcase the potential of our approach by demonstrating the ability to quantify leakage outside of the computational subspace, a key factor for developing more robust and reliable quantum gates in high-dimensional systems. Published by the American Physical Society 2024