Operant Learning Theory Research Articles

Direct assessment of overnight parent-child proximity in children with behavioral insomnia: Extending models of operant and classical conditioning

ABSTRACT Introduction Explanatory models of behavioral insomnia typically draw on operant learning theory with behavioral techniques focused on altering parent-child interactions to improve sleep. However, there are no data describing parent-child interactions overnight beyond parent report. In this study we used radio frequency identification technology to quantify parent-child proximity overnight in two groups at elevated risk of behavioral insomnia, Angelman syndrome (AS) and Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS). Materials and Methods Nineteen children aged 4–15 years (8 with AS, 11 with SMS) participated in a week-long at-home assessment of sleep and overnight parent-child proximity. Sleep parameters were recorded using the Philips Actiwatch 2 and proximity data were recorded using custom-built radio frequency identification watches. Results Three patterns of proximity data between parent-child dyads overnight were evident: “checking” (six with AS, five with SMS), “co-sleeping” (four with SMS) and those who had “no proximity” overnight (two with AS, two with SMS). In the AS group, 25.45% of actigraphy-defined wakes resulted in a parent-child interaction. In the SMS group, 39.34% of wakes resulted in a parent-child interaction. Children who interacted with their parents when settling to sleep were not significantly more likely to interact at waking. Discussion The novel application of radio frequency identification technology is a feasible method for studying overnight parent-child proximity. Profiles of proximity between participants that are not closely aligned with operant models of behavioral insomnia were evident. These results have significant implications for the etiology of poor sleep and the application of behavioral sleep interventions.

The associations between posttraumatic stress disorder and delay discounting, future orientation, and reward availability: A behavioral economic model.

The theoretical framework of behavioral economics, a metatheory that integrates operant learning and economic theory, has only recently been applied to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A behavioral economic theory of PTSD reflects an expansion of prior behavioral conceptualization of PTSD, which described PTSD in terms of respondent and operant conditioning. In the behavioral economic framework of PTSD, negatively reinforced avoidance behavior is overvalued, in part due to deficits in environmental reward, and may be conceptualized as a form of reinforcer pathology (i.e., excessive preference for and valuation of an immediate reinforcer). We investigated cross-sectional relationships between PTSD severity and several constructs rooted in this behavioral economic framework, including future orientation, reward availability, and delay discounting in a sample of 110 military personnel/veterans (87.2% male) who had served combat deployments following September 11, 2001. Total PTSD severity was inversely related to environmental reward availability, β = -.49, ΔR2 = 0.24, p < .001; hedonic reward availability, β = -.32, ΔR2 = 0.10, p = .001; and future orientation, β = -.20, ΔR2 = 0.04, p = .032, but not delay discounting, r = -.05, p = .633. An examination of individual symptom clusters did not suggest that avoidance symptoms were uniquely associated with these behavioral economic constructs. The findings offer support for a behavioral economic model of PTSD in which there is a lack of positive reinforcement as well as a myopic focus on the present.

Out with the Old and in With the New: Deimplementation in Emergency Medicine.

Much of emergency medicine care and quality standards are rooted in evidence-based guidelines. The Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (SAEM) and the journal Academic Emergency Medicine through publications, conferences, and various initiatives have encouraged the emergency medicine community to create and disseminate evidence-based guidelines. New and updated guidelines must also be implemented into practice. Increasing numbers of publications in this journal and elsewhere are shining light on how the theories and frameworks of implementation science can increase the uptake, reach, and sustainability of evidence-based guidelines in emergency medicine.

Reducing Low-Value Practices a Functional-Contextual Consideration to Aid in De-Implementation Efforts

Through innovation in research and self-correction, it is inevitable that some practices will be replaced or be discredited for one reason or another. De-implementation of discredited and low-value practices is a necessary step for school psychologists’ maintenance of evidence-based practices and to reduce unnecessary costs and risk. However, efforts to clarify de-implementation frameworks and strategies are ongoing. The scope of this paper follows McKay et al. in considering the potential for de-implementation strategies to be informed by applied behavior analysis and operant learning theory. We conceptualize low-value practice as sets of behaviors evoked by their context and maintained by their consequences, and thus de-implementation as behavior reduction. We discuss the need for future research given this perspective.

The use of theory in the development and evaluation of behaviour change interventions to improve antimicrobial prescribing: a systematic review.

This systematic review (SR) reviews the evidence on use of theory in developing and evaluating behaviour change interventions (BCIs) to improve clinicians' antimicrobial prescribing (AP). The SR protocol was registered with PROSPERO. Eleven databases were searched from inception to October 2018 for peer-reviewed, English-language, primary literature in any healthcare setting and for any medical condition. This included research on changing behavioural intentions (e.g. in simulated scenarios) and research measuring actual AP. All study designs/methodologies were included. Excluded were: grey literature and/or those which did not state a theory. Two reviewers independently extracted and quality assessed the data. The Theory Coding Scheme (TCS) evaluated the extent of the use of theory. Searches found 4227 potentially relevant papers after removal of duplicates. Screening of titles/abstracts led to dual assessment of 38 full-text papers. Ten (five quantitative, three qualitative and two mixed-methods) met the inclusion criteria. Studies were conducted in the UK (n = 8), Canada (n = 1) and Sweden (n = 1), most in primary care settings (n = 9), targeting respiratory tract infections (n = 8), and medical doctors (n = 10). The most common theories used were Theory of Planned Behaviour (n = 7), Social Cognitive Theory (n = 5) and Operant Learning Theory (n = 5). The use of theory to inform the design and choice of intervention varied, with no optimal use as recommended in the TCS. This SR is the first to investigate theoretically based BCIs around AP. Few studies were identified; most were suboptimal in theory use. There is a need to consider how theory is used and reported and the systematic use of the TCS could help.

Theoretical approaches in the development and evaluation of behaviour change interventions that improve clinicians’ antimicrobial prescribing: a systematic review

Many countries have developed antimicrobial stewardship programmes with strategies to optimise antimicrobial prescribing. There remains a need for behaviour change interventions at clinician level to promote appropriate prescribing. Theories should be used for developing and evaluating interventions to change human behaviour. Aim / Objectives:The aim of this review was to critically appraise, synthesise and present the available evidence for theoretical approaches in the development and evaluation of behaviour change interventions designed to improve clinicians' antimicrobial prescribing. Design &amp; Methodology: The systematic review protocol was developed and registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42018098586). Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed study quality. Clinical and methodological heterogeneity limited data synthesis. Results The searches resulted in 4227 relevant articles after duplicates removal. Screening of titles/abstracts led to retrieval and dual assessment of 38 full-text articles. Of those, a total of 10 studies met the inclusion criteria. The majority of studies were carried out in primary care settings (n = 9) targeting upper respiratory tract infections (n = 8). Use of theory varied considerably across studies included. Theory of Planned Behaviour, Social Cognitive Theory and Operant Learning Theory were the most common theories used to inform the design and choice of interventions. Conclusion / Discussion It is feasible to develop and evaluate theoretically based interventions to improve professional practice. The findings of this systematic review will inform understanding of the theoretical basis of behaviour change interventions which contribute to contain AMR rates and prevent the world entering a “post-antibiotic era”.

Behavioral Treatment of Trichotillomania in a College Woman: A Case Study

Trichotillomania (TTM) is a disorder that involves repetitive pulling of one’s hair to the point of hair loss and clinically significant distress or functional impairment. Using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 ( DSM-5) criteria, which include repeated attempts to decrease or stop pulling, the 12-month prevalence of TTM is 1% to 2%. Treatment commonly involves behavior therapies. These behavior therapies conceptualize TTM using operant learning theory and explain hair-pulling behavior as caused and maintained by environmental antecedents and consequences interacting with an individual’s biological makeup. This clinical case study describes use of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Enhanced Behavior Therapy for Trichotillomania (AEBT-T) protocol to facilitate treatment of a 20-year-old woman who was referred for TTM. The client remained in treatment for 14 months. After the completion of 32 therapy sessions, the client reported significantly reduced hair-pulling and anxiety, as well as increased engagement in valued activities. Implications of these findings are discussed, with an emphasis on the challenges of treating TTM in a college population.

Changing behaviour \u2018more or less\u2019\u2014do theories of behaviour inform strategies for implementation and de-implementation? A critical interpretive synthesis

BackgroundImplementing evidence-based care requires healthcare practitioners to do less of some things (de-implementation) and more of others (implementation). Variations in effectiveness of behaviour change interventions may result from failure to consider a distinction between approaches by which behaviour increases and decreases in frequency. The distinction is not well represented in methods for designing interventions. This review aimed to identify whether there is a theoretical rationale to support this distinction.MethodsUsing Critical Interpretative Synthesis, this conceptual review included papers from a broad range of fields (biology, psychology, education, business) likely to report approaches for increasing or decreasing behaviour. Articles were identified from databases using search terms related to theory and behaviour change. Articles reporting changes in frequency of behaviour and explicit use of theory were included. Data extracted were direction of behaviour change, how theory was operationalised, and theory-based recommendations for behaviour change. Analyses of extracted data were conducted iteratively and involved inductive coding and critical exploration of ideas and purposive sampling of additional papers to explore theoretical concepts in greater detail.ResultsCritical analysis of 66 papers and their theoretical sources identified three key findings: (1) 9 of the 15 behavioural theories identified do not distinguish between implementation and de-implementation (5 theories were applied to only implementation or de-implementation, not both); (2) a common strategy for decreasing frequency was substituting one behaviour with another. No theoretical basis for this strategy was articulated, nor were methods proposed for selecting appropriate substitute behaviours; (3) Operant Learning Theory makes an explicit distinction between techniques for increasing and decreasing frequency.DiscussionBehavioural theories provide little insight into the distinction between implementation and de-implementation. Operant Learning Theory identified different strategies for implementation and de-implementation, but these strategies may not be acceptable in health systems. Additionally, if behaviour substitution is an approach for de-implementation, further investigation may inform methods or rationale for selecting the substitute behaviour.

Integrating theory and data to create an online self-management programme for adults with type 2 diabetes: HeLP-Diabetes

Event Abstract Back to Event Integrating theory and data to create an online self-management programme for adults with type 2 diabetes: HeLP-Diabetes Kingshuk Pal1*, Charlotte Dack2, Jamie Ross1, Susan Michie3 and Elizabeth Murray1 1 UCL, Department of Primary Care and Population Health, United Kingdom 2 University of Bath, Department of Psychology, United Kingdom 3 UCL, Health Psychology, United Kingdom Background The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is increasing and estimates suggest that by 2030 nearly 1 in 10 adults worldwide will be living with this condition. 10% of the NHS budget is spent on treating diabetes and related complications like heart attacks, strokes and blindness. Improving self-management in people living with type 2 diabetes is crucial in reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with this disease. Uptake of group-based self-management training is low and there is an urgent need for evidence based and effective alternatives. Computer-based interventions have the potential to provide cost-effective self-management training and improve outcomes for people with type 2 diabetes. Aims/objectives To describe an interdisciplinary protocol for combining theory and empirical data to inform an online self-management programme for adults with type 2 diabetes (‘HeLP-Diabetes’). Methods Literature was searched and experts consulted in the areas of psychology, clinical medicine and medical sociology to identify relevant clinical outcome data, theory and evidence of efficacy of behaviour change techniques (BCTs). A qualitative study explored views and experiences of patients and health professionals. Different sources were relevant to different aspects of the intervention design with weight given to the strength of the evidence supporting a particular approach. Expert consensus and theory were used to guide development where there were conflicting sources or insufficient data. Results Two broad frameworks were identified for defining the scope and implementation of the intervention: • Corbin & Strauss’ model of learning to live with a long-term condition • Normalisation Process Theory to understand why complex interventions do, or do not become implemented and embedded into routine practice. The COM-B model was used to understand the core behaviours relevant to diabetes self-management i.e. relating to diet, activity, and taking medication. Alcohol intake, depression and smoking cessation were tackled by more specialist interventions imported into the programme. The Behaviour Change Wheel was used as a post-hoc framework to summarise the process by which the data were synthesised and used to create the intervention and the intervention was described in terms of BCTs. The active ingredients of the intervention have been explicitly described in terms of 14 BCTs delivered through 8 sections of the website. Three theories underpin the behaviour change elements of the intervention: • Operant learning theory • Control theory • Social cognitive theory Conclusions This protocol demonstrates a multi-disciplinary approach to combining evidence from multiple sources to create ’HeLP-Diabetes’: a theory and evidence based online self-management intervention for adults with type 2 diabetes. Keywords: type 2 diabetes, eHealth, Internet, Behaviour Change, self-management Conference: 2nd Behaviour Change Conference: Digital Health and Wellbeing, London, United Kingdom, 24 Feb - 25 Feb, 2016. Presentation Type: Oral presentation Topic: Academic Citation: Pal K, Dack C, Ross J, Michie S and Murray E (2016). Integrating theory and data to create an online self-management programme for adults with type 2 diabetes: HeLP-Diabetes. Front. Public Health. Conference Abstract: 2nd Behaviour Change Conference: Digital Health and Wellbeing. doi: 10.3389/conf.FPUBH.2016.01.00005 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 11 Dec 2015; Published Online: 09 Jan 2016. * Correspondence: Dr. Kingshuk Pal, UCL, Department of Primary Care and Population Health, London, United Kingdom, k.pal@ucl.ac.uk Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Kingshuk Pal Charlotte Dack Jamie Ross Susan Michie Elizabeth Murray Google Kingshuk Pal Charlotte Dack Jamie Ross Susan Michie Elizabeth Murray Google Scholar Kingshuk Pal Charlotte Dack Jamie Ross Susan Michie Elizabeth Murray PubMed Kingshuk Pal Charlotte Dack Jamie Ross Susan Michie Elizabeth Murray Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Commentary "A Crisis in Comparative Psychology: Where have all the Undergraduates Gone?" Collaborating with Behavior Analysts Could Avert a Crisis in Comparative Psychology.

Commentary "A Crisis in Comparative Psychology: Where have all the Undergraduates Gone?" Collaborating with Behavior Analysts Could Avert a Crisis in Comparative Psychology.

로열티 포인트 사용행동과 고객생애가치(Customer Lifetime Value) 분석

The main objective of this research is to investigate whether the RFM (recency-frequency-monetary value) information of a customer's redemption behavior of loyalty points can improve the prediction of future value of the customer. The conventional measurement of customer value has been primarily based on purchase transactions behavior although a customer's future behavior can be also influenced by other interactions between the customer and the firm such as redemption of rewards in a loyalty program. We theorize why a customer's redemption behavior can influence her future purchases and thereby the customer's total value based on operant learning theory, goal gradient hypothesis, and lock-in effect. Using a dataset from a major book store in Korea spanning three years between 2008 and 2010, we analyze both purchase transactions and redemption records of over 10,000 customers. The results show that the redemption-based RFM information does improve the prediction accuracy of the customer's future purchases. Based on this result, we also propose an improved estimate of customer lifetime value (CLV) by combining purchase transactions and loyalty points redemption data. Managerial implications will be also discussed for firms managing loyalty programs to maximize the total value customers.

Behavioral approach to workaholism

Abstract Objective The main goal of this paper is to discuss the behavioural causes of workaholism. Review Definitions of workaholism have been presented, along with its status in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems, and the behavioural causes behind workaholism. The behavioural theories of workaholism have also been included (including operant learning and social learning theory) as well as a discussion on the role of reinforcements in developing workaholism. Conclusions The genesis of workaholism might be explained in terms of learning models. An important role in its development is played by reinforcements such as social approval, improvement of material status, anxiety reduction, increased self-esteem or compensation for poor interpersonal relationships.

Theory-based interventions to reduce prescription of antibiotics--a randomized controlled trial in Sweden

Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) are the most common reason for consulting a GP and for receiving an antibiotic prescription, although evidence shows poor benefit but rather increasing antibiotic resistance. Interventions addressing physicians have to take into consideration the complexity of prescribing behaviour. To study whether interventions based on behavioural theories can reduce the prescribing of antibiotics against URTIs in primary care. Setting and subjects. GPs at 19 public primary health care centres in southern Sweden. We performed a randomized controlled study using two behavioural theory-based interventions, the persuasive communication intervention (PCI) and the graded task intervention (GTI), which emerged from social cognitive theory and operant learning theory. GPs were randomized to a control group or one of two intervention groups (PCI and GTI). Changes in the rate of prescription of antibiotics against URTIs in primary care patients of all ages and in patients aged 0-6 years. No significant differences were seen in the prescription rates before and after the interventions when patients of all ages were analysed together. However, for patients aged 0-6 years, there was a significant lower prescription rate in the PCI group (P = 0.037), but not the GTI group, after intervention. Theory-based interventions have limited impact on reducing the prescription of antibiotics against URTIs in primary care. Future studies are needed to draw firm conclusions about their effects.

047 Identifying Factors Predictive of Managing Patients with Low Back Pain without Using X-Rays Among North American Chiropractors: Applying Psychological Theories to Evidence-Based Clinical Practice

BackgroundThis study aimed to identify theoretically based modifiable factors that predict whether chiropractors manage patients with low back pain without ordering lumbar x-rays.MethodsA mailed survey with psychological measures was collected...

Psychological interventions for adults who have sexually offended or are at risk of offending

Sexual offending is a serious social and public health problem. Surveys report high levels of psychiatric morbidity in survivors of sexual offences. Biological treatments of sex offenders include anti-libidinal medication: hormonal drugs that have a testosterone-suppressing effect and non-hormonal

Operant Learning Theory in Pain and Chronic Pain Rehabilitation

The application of operant learning theory on chronic pain by Fordyce has had a huge impact on chronic pain research and management. The operant model focuses on pain behaviors as a major component of the pain problem, and postulates that they are subject to environmental contingencies. The role of operant learning in pain behaviors generally has been supported by experimental studies, which are reviewed in the present article. Subsequently, the rationale, goals, and methods of operant behavioral treatment of chronic pain are outlined. Special attention is paid to three therapeutic techniques (graded activity, activity pacing, and time-contingent medication management), which are discussed in detail with regard to their operationalization, effectiveness, and (possible) mechanisms of action. Criticisms of the operant model are presented, as are suggestions for the optimization of (operant) behavioral treatment efficacy.

Applying psychological theories to evidence-based clinical practice: identifying factors predictive of lumbar spine x-ray for low back pain in UK primary care practice

BackgroundPsychological models predict behaviour in a wide range of settings. The aim of this study was to explore the usefulness of a range of psychological models to predict the health professional behaviour 'referral for lumbar spine x-ray in patients presenting with low back pain' by UK primary care physicians.MethodsPsychological measures were collected by postal questionnaire survey from a random sample of primary care physicians in Scotland and north England. The outcome measures were clinical behaviour (referral rates for lumbar spine x-rays), behavioural simulation (lumbar spine x-ray referral decisions based upon scenarios), and behavioural intention (general intention to refer for lumbar spine x-rays in patients with low back pain). Explanatory variables were the constructs within the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), Common Sense Self-Regulation Model (CS-SRM), Operant Learning Theory (OLT), Implementation Intention (II), Weinstein's Stage Model termed the Precaution Adoption Process (PAP), and knowledge. For each of the outcome measures, a generalised linear model was used to examine the predictive value of each theory individually. Linear regression was used for the intention and simulation outcomes, and negative binomial regression was used for the behaviour outcome. Following this 'theory level' analysis, a 'cross-theoretical construct' analysis was conducted to investigate the combined predictive value of all individual constructs across theories.ResultsConstructs from TPB, SCT, CS-SRM, and OLT predicted behaviour; however, the theoretical models did not fit the data well. When predicting behavioural simulation, the proportion of variance explained by individual theories was TPB 11.6%, SCT 12.1%, OLT 8.1%, and II 1.5% of the variance, and in the cross-theory analysis constructs from TPB, CS-SRM and II explained 16.5% of the variance in simulated behaviours. When predicting intention, the proportion of variance explained by individual theories was TPB 25.0%, SCT 21.5%, CS-SRM 11.3%, OLT 26.3%, PAP 2.6%, and knowledge 2.3%, and in the cross-theory analysis constructs from TPB, SCT, CS-SRM, and OLT explained 33.5% variance in intention. Together these results suggest that physicians' beliefs about consequences and beliefs about capabilities are likely determinants of lumbar spine x-ray referrals.ConclusionsThe study provides evidence that taking a theory-based approach enables the creation of a replicable methodology for identifying factors that predict clinical behaviour. However, a number of conceptual and methodological challenges remain.

Applications of Operant Learning Theory to the Management of Challenging Behavior After Traumatic Brain Injury

For more than 3 decades, interventions derived from learning theory have been delivered within a neurobehavioral framework to manage challenging behavior after traumatic brain injury with the aim of promoting engagement in the rehabilitation process and ameliorating social handicap. Learning theory provides a conceptual structure that facilitates our ability to understand the relationship between challenging behavior and environmental contingencies, while accommodating the constraints upon learning imposed by impaired cognition. Interventions derived from operant learning theory have most frequently been described in the literature because this method of associational learning provides good evidence for the effectiveness of differential reinforcement methods. This article therefore examines the efficacy of applying operant learning theory to manage challenging behavior after TBI as well as some of the limitations of this approach. Future developments in the application of learning theory are also considered.

Applying psychological theories to evidence-based clinical practice: identifying factors predictive of placing preventive fissure sealants

BackgroundPsychological models are used to understand and predict behaviour in a wide range of settings, but have not been consistently applied to health professional behaviours, and the contribution of differing theories is not clear. This study explored the usefulness of a range of models to predict an evidence-based behaviour -- the placing of fissure sealants.MethodsMeasures were collected by postal questionnaire from a random sample of general dental practitioners (GDPs) in Scotland. Outcomes were behavioural simulation (scenario decision-making), and behavioural intention. Predictor variables were from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), Common Sense Self-regulation Model (CS-SRM), Operant Learning Theory (OLT), Implementation Intention (II), Stage Model, and knowledge (a non-theoretical construct). Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the predictive value of each theoretical model individually. Significant constructs from all theories were then entered into a 'cross theory' stepwise regression analysis to investigate their combined predictive valueResultsBehavioural simulation - theory level variance explained was: TPB 31%; SCT 29%; II 7%; OLT 30%. Neither CS-SRM nor stage explained significant variance. In the cross theory analysis, habit (OLT), timeline acute (CS-SRM), and outcome expectancy (SCT) entered the equation, together explaining 38% of the variance. Behavioural intention - theory level variance explained was: TPB 30%; SCT 24%; OLT 58%, CS-SRM 27%. GDPs in the action stage had significantly higher intention to place fissure sealants. In the cross theory analysis, habit (OLT) and attitude (TPB) entered the equation, together explaining 68% of the variance in intention.SummaryThe study provides evidence that psychological models can be useful in understanding and predicting clinical behaviour. Taking a theory-based approach enables the creation of a replicable methodology for identifying factors that may predict clinical behaviour and so provide possible targets for knowledge translation interventions. Results suggest that more evidence-based behaviour may be achieved by influencing beliefs about the positive outcomes of placing fissure sealants and building a habit of placing them as part of patient management. However a number of conceptual and methodological challenges remain.

Behavioral vs. cognitive views of speech perception and production.

Introduction The study of speech perception and production has been dominated largely by cognitively oriented researchers and theorists. However, cognitive theories do not translate well into actually teaching speech and language. Because of its emphasis on behavior and its foundation of experimentally derived principles of learning, operant learning theory, on the other hand, has for more than 40 years been used to successfully teach speech and language, especially to people with a variety of speech and language disorders (e.g., Camarata, 1993; DeLeon, Arnold, Rodriguez-Catter, & Uy, 2003; Hegde, 1998; Hegde, 2007; Hegde & Maul, 2006; Johnston, & Johnston, 1972; Lancaster et al., 2004; Pena-Brooks & Hegde, 2007; Wagaman, Miltenberger, & Arndorfer, 1993). Although there is a fair amount of behavioral research on teaching verbal behavior to people with speech and language disorders, with few exceptions (e.g., Guess, Sailor, Rutherford, & Baer, 1968; Whitehurst, 1972; Whitehurst, Ironsmith, & Goldfein, 1974) behavioral scientists have not contributed much basic research on speech perception or production. What behavior analysis can offer language researchers and speech-language pathologists (SLPs) is a coherent and parsimonious interpretation of speech consistent with experimentally established scientific principles of learning that has immediate practical applications. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate a general behavioral approach to speech perception and production and to contrast it with the traditional cognitive account. The task of interpreting the traditional speech perception and production literature from a behavior analytic perspective is not as onerous as one might imagine, given that much of the research either incorporates relatively straightforward operant conditioning methods or methods that are amenable to an operant analysis. Contrasting Views of Perception Cognitive Views of Perception Traditional treatments describe sensation in terms of the effects of on sensory receptors. Perception, on the other hand, has generally been referred to as how the brain interprets sensory experience, or more formally as: ...the process by which animals gain knowledge about their environment and about themselves in relation to the environment. It is the beginning of knowing and so is an essential part of cognition. More specifically, to perceive is to obtain information about the world through stimulation. (Gibson & Spelke, 1983, p. 2) The main problem with such descriptions is that gaining knowledge, knowing, and obtaining information are inferred solely from observable behavioral evidence and, thus, do not add much to our understanding. Moreover, placing perception inside the brain, as some descriptions do, only moves the level of analysis further away from the actual behaviors involved when one speaks of perception. And talking about the brain as if it is doing something--perceiving--is an example of what I refer to as the brain-as-person metaphor because organisms, not brains, perceive, that is, behave. Descriptions of the development of perception in infants are equally vague. For example, according to Gallahue (1989), attach little meaning to sensory stimuli but very soon infants begin to attach meaning and attend to specific and to identify objects (p. 184). But what does that mean? These verbs do not refer to specific behaviors that can be studied but rather labels for a variety of behaviors. To understand what it means to attend, to identify or to attach meaning, we would need to observe what newborns actually do and the circumstances under which they do it when researchers use such terms. And we should not be surprised if the behaviors and circumstances vary considerably from instance to instance. Furthermore, such characterizations raise a more fundamental question: Why do infants begin to attach meaning or attend to specific stimuli? …