Open Water Sources Research Articles

Urogenital schistosomiasis in Cabo Delgado, northern Mozambique: baseline findings from the SCORE study

BackgroundThe results presented here are part of a five-year cluster-randomised intervention trial that was implemented to understand how best to gain and sustain control of schistosomiasis through different preventive chemotherapy strategies. This paper presents baseline data that were collected in ten districts of Cabo Delgado province, northern Mozambique, before treatment.MethodsA cross-sectional study of 19,039 individuals was sampled from 144 villages from May to September 2011. In each village prevalence and intensity of S. haematobium were investigated in 100 children first-year students (aged 5–8 years), 100 school children aged 9–12 years (from classes 2 to 7) and 50 adults (20–55 years). Prevalence and intensity of S. haematobium infection were evaluated microscopically by two filtrations, each of 10 ml, from a single urine specimen. Given that individual and community perceptions of schistosomiasis influence control efforts, community knowledge and environmental risk factors were collected using a face-to-face interview. Data were entered onto mobile phones using EpiCollect. Data summary was made using descriptive statistics. Chi-square and logistic regression were used to determine the association between dependent and independent variables.ResultsThe overall prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis was 60.4% with an arithmetic mean intensity of infection of 55.8 eggs/10 ml of urine. Heavy infections were detected in 17.7%, of which 235 individuals (6.97%) had an egg count of 1000 eggs/10 ml or more. There was a significantly higher likelihood of males being infected than females across all ages (62% vs 58%; P < 0.0005). Adolescents aged 9–12 years had a higher prevalence (66.6%) and mean infection intensity (71.9 eggs/10 ml) than first-year students (63.1%; 58.2 eggs/10 ml). This is the first study in Mozambique looking at infection rates among adults. Although children had higher levels of infection, it was found here that adults had a high average prevalence and intensity of infection (44.5%; 23.9 eggs/10 ml). Awareness of schistosomiasis was relatively high (68.6%); however, correct knowledge of how schistosomiasis is acquired was low (23.2%) among those who had heard of the disease. Schistosomiasis risk behaviour such as washing (91.3%) and bathing (86.7%) in open water sources likely to be infested with host snails was high.ConclusionsUrogenital schistosomiasis is widespread in Cabo Delgado. In addition, poor community knowledge about the causes of schistosomiasis and how to prevent it increases the significant public health challenge for the national control program. This was the first study in Mozambique that examined infection levels among adults, where results showed that S. haematobium infection was also extremely high. Given that this controlled trial aims to understand the impact of different combinations of schistosomiasis control through treatment of communities, schools, and treatment holidays over a five-year period, these findings highlight the importance of examining the impact of different treatment approaches also in adults.Trial registrationThe trials have been registered with the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial registry under ISRCT 14117624 Mozambique (14 December 2015).

Endogenous endophthalmitis secondary to melioidosis in paediatric patients: Case series and review article

Endogenous endophthalmitis is a devastating infection of the eye which can lead to permanent blindness. We report two rare cases of paediatric endogenous endophthalmitis secondary to melioidosis with contrasting visual outcomes. Both patients presented with acute painful visual loss with poor vision on presentation after exposure to open water sources (swimming at two separate locations with waterfalls). Both were diagnosed to have melioidosis endogenous endophthalmitis based on the ocular features clinically and via positive melioidosis serology. They otherwise did not exhibit any symptoms and signs suggestive of systemic melioidosis infection. Even though the two children demonstrated severe ocular involvement, ocular culture from vitreous and aqueous sampling taken from one of the patients did not yield any positive results. No ocular sampling was taken from the other patient. After standard antimicrobial treatment, the first patient responded well with good visual recovery without requiring any surgical intervention for the endophthalmitis. In contrast, our second patient ended up with poor visual outcome despite undergoing multiple intravitreal antibiotic injections and early pars plana vitrectomy. This is because he developed extensive retinal detachment due to the aggressive ocular infection. The diagnosis of endogenous endophthalmitis due to ocular melioidosis remains challenging and requires a high index of suspicion in areas endemic for the causative organism. Early empirical antibiotic treatment should be initiated in suspicious cases, even though the treatment outcomes may vary greatly.

Cleaning and reusing backwash water of water treatment plants

The article deals with the treatment of wash water of water treatment plants open water sources. The results of experimental studies on the choice of effective reagent, cleaning and disposal of wash water of filters. The paper proposed a new two-stage purification technology and multiple reuse of wash water of water purification stations from open surface sources

First data on the bionomics of Brachyodynerus magnificus magnificus (Morawitz, 1867) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Eumeninae)

Nesting of Brachyodynerus magnificus magnificus was studied in the Crimea on saline land. The nests were horizontal or inclined burrows excavated by females in lateral walls of soil cracks developed on clay ground substrate. Structure of three nests was examined; they were located in cracks 6–7 cm in depth and 0.5–1.5 cm in width; nest entrances were opened at depths of 2.5–4 cm; they were simple round openings without entrance turrets or any other structures. Two nests were abandoned by females and both had burrows 19 mm long; the third one was complete and had a burrow 33 mm long divided by transverse mud partitions onto three cells 8–10 mm long and a vestibular cell 2 mm long stopped by a final mud plug. The cells were not different from other parts of the nest burrow. Females used a liquid sucked out from succulent leaves of two halophitic plant species of the family Chenopodiaceae during nest building and did not visit any open water sources. Females hunted for caterpillars of a single species of coleophorid moth, Aporiptura ochroflava; 22–27 caterpillars were stored in each cell. Adult feeding was recorded on flowers of eight plant species, but the main nectar source was flowers of Limonium scoparium. Males spent their time feeding on flowers and searching for females at nesting and hunting sites. The species probably has two generations per year and we observed the nesting of the second generation. The distribution of the species is summarized; its presence in East Europe is confirmed. The lectotype of Odynerus magnificus Morawitz, 1867 is designated.

Rapid mapping of urinary schistosomiasis: An appraisal of the diagnostic efficacy of some questionnaire-based indices among high school students in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria.

BackgroundIn sub-Saharan Africa, over 200 million individuals are estimated to be infected with urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis. In a bid to lay a foundation for effective future control programme, this study was carried out with the aim of assessing the diagnostic efficacy of some questionnaire-based rapid assessment indices of urinary schistosomiasis.MethodologyA total number of 1,363 subjects were enrolled for the study. Questionnaires were administered basically in English and Hausa languages by trained personnel. Following informed consent, terminal urine samples were collected between 09:40 AM and 2:00 PM using clean 20 ml capacity universal bottles. 10μl of each urine residue was examined for the eggs of S. haematobium using x10 objective nose of Motic Binocular Light Microscope (China).Principal findingsThe average age ± Standard Deviation (SD) of school children examined was 15.30 ± 2.30 years and 40.87% were females. The overall prevalence and geometric mean intensity of S. haematobium infection were 26.41% (24.10─28.85) and 6.59 (5.59─7.75) eggs / 10 ml of urine respectively. Interestingly, a questionnaire equivalence of the prevalence obtained in this survey was 26.41% (24.10─28.85) for Rapid Assessment Procedure based on self-reported blood in urine. The results of correlation analyses demonstrated significant associations between the prevalence of S. haematobium infection and contact with potentially infested open water sources (r = 0.741; P = 0.006). By regression model, cases of respondents with self-reported blood in urine are expected to rise to 24.75% if prevalence of the infection shoots up to 26.5%.Conclusions/SignificanceThe best RAP performance was obtained with self-reported blood in urine. Based on the overall prevalence value, the study area was at a “moderate-risk” of endemicity for urinary schistosomiasis. Chemotherapeutic intervention with Praziquantel, the rationale behind rapid assessment procedure for schistosomiasis, has been recommended to be carried out once in every 2 years for such communities.

Schistosoma mansoni Infection Prevalence and Associated Determinant Factors among School Children in Mana District, Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, South West Ethiopia

Background: Human Schistosomiasis caused by mansoni is among the chronic neglected tropical parasitic disease. Water bodies harboring intermediate host and infested with infective Cercaria is risk factor for getting infection and contact with it for different domestic purposes. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine mansoni infections prevalence and associated determinant factors among School Children in Manna District, Southwest, Ethiopia. Method: A cross sectional study was conducted among the school children aged between 6-19 years from March to May 2015. For diagnosis of mansoni, stool sample was obtained from each child and processed using Kato Katz and examined using light microscope. A questionnaire was used to collect Socio-demographic information of the school children participated and risk factors for mansoni infections in the study area. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.0. Results: The prevalence of mansoni was found to be 27.6%, which was 28.6% and 26.7% among male and female, respectively. Majority of infection intensity was low with maximum 1968EPG. Bathing in river/ponds (AOR=0.088, 95% CI, 0.002-0.099, P=0.039), washing clothes in open water sources (AOR=0.075, 95% CI, 0.006-0.101, P=0.002) and crossing rivers on bare foots (AOR=0.058, 95% CI, 0.05-0.087, P=0.002) were independent predictors for mansoni infection (P-value 10% and <50% according to WHO threshold); hence a biannual MDA with PZQ is required and bathing in open water sources, washing clothes in rivers/ponds and crossing river on bare foot were independent predictors of S.mansoni infections.

Social, environment and climate change impacts on vector-borne diseases in arid areas of southern Africa

Social, institutional and environmental determinants of health have a major influence on the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases. This is exacerbated by climate change. We assessed the influence of these factors on malaria and bilharzia in vulnerable communities in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe with a view to develop stakeholder-driven adaptation strategies. We adopted an ecohealth approach. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected through community and household surveys, epidemiological surveys, GIS and Remote Sensing tools and participatory rural appraisal workshops. Burden of malaria at one study location was very high in 2011 (218 DALYs) but reduced over years to 0.21 in 2015. An average of 8 working and 8 school days were lost due to malaria. We demonstrated the value of using the maxent model to determine snail habitat suitability with small data of presence-only sampling sites thus providing useful information for local bilharzia control programmes. Distance of homestead from piped water collection points, distance from open water sources, religion and toilet use were key determinants of a child being infected with bilharzia. Communities were aware of malaria and bilharzia and how the diseases may be influenced by climate factors. However, knowledge on transmission of the diseases was limited thus compromising community capacity to adequately adapt. Communities claimed that they could predict rainfall based on indicators such as insect and animal behavior and abundance of plants. Engagement between the communities and researchers was very high. Both bilharzia and malaria are public health problems at the study sites but their severity is variable as different control measures have been effected. Factors influencing transmission of the diseases and how climate change may exacerbate the problem were identified and have formed the basis for formulating community adaptation strategies.

Risk factors and micro-geographical heterogeneity of Schistosoma haematobium in Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Schistosomiasis is a snail-transmitted parasitic disease endemic in most rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. However, the currently used prediction models fail to capture the focal nature of its transmission due to the macro-geographical levels considered and paucity of data at local levels. This study determined the spatial distribution of Schistosoma haematobium and related risk factors in Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude District, KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. A sample of 435 schoolchildren between 10 to 15 years old from 10 primary schools was screened for S. haematobium using the filtration method. Getis-Ord Gi* and Bernoulli model were used to determine the hotspots of S. haematobium infection intensity based on their spatial distribution. Semiparametric-Geographically Weighted Regression (s-GWR) model was used to predict and analyse the spatial distribution of S. haematobium in relation to environmental and socio-economic factors. We confirmed that schistosomiasis transmission is focal in nature as indicated by significant S. haematobium cases and infection intensity clusters (p<0.05) in the study area. The s-GWR model performance was low (R2=0.45) and its residuals did not show autocorrelation (Moran’s I=−0.001; z-score=0.003 and p-value=0.997) indicating that the model was correctly spelled. The s-GWR model also indicated that the coefficients for some of the socio-economic variables such as distances of households from operational piped water collection points, distance from open water sources, religion, toilet use, household head and places of bath and laundry significantly (t-values+/−1.96) varied across the landscape thereby determining the variation of S. haematobium infection intensity. This evidence may be used for control and management of the disease at micro scale. However, there is need for further research into more factors that may improve the performance of the s-GWR models in determining the local variation of S. haematobium infection intensity.

English

Some Salmonella spp. are important pathogenic bacteria that can be transmitted to people via food and water and that can cause disease characterized by mild to severe enteric and systemic illness. In developing countries, infections caused by pathogenic antibiotic resistant Salmonella spp. are a major health challenge, particularly in children. Through the use of membrane filtration and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 1200 methods, the presence of fecal coliforms and antibiotic resistant Salmonella spp. in surface water sources was investigated, some of which had shared access for animals and people. Out of 100 water samples, 76 were positive for fecal coliforms and 63% of the positive samples contained &gt;100 CFU / 100 ml of water. We observed a significant positive correlation between the number of fecal coliforms and the presence of Salmonella spp. (r=0.46, n=100, P=0.01). Importantly, &gt;26% of the samples were positive for Salmonella spp. and 88% of these samples harbored isolates resistant to &ge;1 antibiotic. Moreover, we found that 26% of antibiotic resistant Salmonella spp. isolates were able to transfer their resistance traits to a recipient strain of Escherichia coli at the rate of 1-7 x 10-3 per donor cells. Microbiological contamination of water was clearly evident in open water sources from northern Tanzania, and the presence of Salmonella spp. poses an immediate risk to anyone who consumes these waters if untreated. Key words: Fecal bacteria, Salmonella, invA gene, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), water.

Dealing with the neglected public health issue of drowning in low-resource settings.

Sir, Globally, drowning has been acknowledged as one of the leading causes of deaths attributed to unintentional injury and accounts for almost 9% of all injury-related fatalities.[1] The current estimates suggest that every year almost 0.37 million people die due to drowning, of which more than 90% of the victims are from low- and middle-income nations.[1] Further, the worst affected regions in terms of incidence are Western Pacific and Southeast Asia, while the African region has reported maximum mortality.[1,2] Not only that the available estimates do not reflect the precise picture as many cases often go unreported, especially nonfatal events, and even drowning deaths resulting because of suicide or homicide or disasters are excluded.[2,3] Moreover, it also contributes a significant financial burden on the families and on the health system.[2] The epidemiological assessment of the global trends revealed that children in the age-group of 1–4 years have the highest incidence of drowning, while in excess of 50% of victims are <25 years.[1] Moreover, the overall death rates have been twice more common in males than females owing to high-risk behaviors.[1] In addition, factors such as poor swimming skills, easy access to open water sources either because of occupation or due to proximity to house, frequent traveling on water in boats or ships poorly maintained or manned by un-experienced drivers, flood disasters, infants left unsupervised near water, tourists unaware of prevalent risks, and lack of barriers limiting exposure to water bodies are some of the known potential risk factors.[1,2,3,4] It is extremely important to understand that once an individual begins to drown, the result is usually fatal and is eventually determined based on the promptness of rescuing the individual from the water, and speed with which appropriate resuscitation is executed.[2,5] Thus, prevention is extremely crucial, and interventions such as creating barriers to restrict access to open water sources; building safe places for under-five children away from water sources; and teaching basic swimming, water safety, and safe rescue-related skills in schools will have a sizeable impact on the overall burden of the problem.[2,3,4] Further, measures such as training observers regarding safe rescue and resuscitation, creating awareness about the condition and susceptibility among children, establishing and enforcing safe boating regulations, ensuring preparedness to adequately respond to flood disasters, encouraging intersectoral coordination, and promoting well-designed studies to ascertain the high risk factors and impact of corrective strategies will also eventually reduce the incidence of drowning and its associated consequences.[2,3,4,5] Acknowledging the public health importance and the fact that the condition has been neglected till date, the World Health Organization has appealed to the national governments to prioritize the concern of drowning prevention, generate reliable date on drowning estimates, integrate it with other public health agendas, formulate a water safety plan at the national level, and even advocate for the involvement of all concerned stakeholders.[1,2] To conclude, drowning is an important global public health concern with a significant impact on health standards of children and youth. As the condition is preventable, implementation of proven measures at various levels can significantly minimize the risk of drowning and associated mortality, especially in low-resource settings. Financial support and sponsorship Nil. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.

Access to, and use of, water by populations living in a schistosomiasis and fascioliasis co-endemic area of northern Côte d’Ivoire

Water is an essential element of life, but it can also be a source of disease. Apart from direct consumption of unsafe water, direct contact and indirect consumption puts people at risk of many different types of pathogens. Employing a mixed methods approach, consisting of questionnaires and direct observations, we assessed access to, and use of, different water sources by the participants of the district des Savanes in northern Côte d'Ivoire. The use of water sources was put in relation to the potential risk of acquiring schistosomiasis and fascioliasis. Overall, 489 people aged 8 to 82 years participated. While all participants had access to safe water, 63% were in direct contact with unimproved water and 31% directly consumed unsafe water. More than a third of the people who otherwise reported using only improved water for all activities came in contact with unimproved water through crossing open water when going to their workplace, school or other destinations. Self-reported blood in urine – a marker for Schistosoma haematobium with reasonable sensitivity and specificity – was reported by 6% (n=30), self-reported blood in stool – an unspecific marker for Schistosoma mansoni – was reported by 7% (n=35), while blood co-occurring in both urine and stool was reported by another 10% (n=48) of participants. Accessing unimproved water for any activity (including crossing) was associated with higher odds of reporting blood in urine and/or blood in stool (odds ratio: 1.90; 95% confidence interval: 1.07–3.36). Our results have important rami-fications for intervention programmes targeting neglected tropical diseases, and emphasize the need for a wider supply of safe water to rural populations, since the water supply at the workplace needs to be considered as well next to the water supply at home. Crossing of open water sources is an important risk factor for sustained transmission of schistosomiasis.

Assessment of quality of water from open water sources in the Almaty HPS-2 influence area

Assessment of quality of water from open water sources in the Almaty HPS-2 influence area

Schistosomiasis infection among primary school students in a war zone, Southern Kordofan State, Sudan: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundSchistosomiasis is a major health problem adversely affecting the health of vulnerable populations in Sudan.MethodsWe conducted a school-based survey to estimate the prevalence of schistosomiasis in 36 villages in Southern Kordofan (SK) State. A total of 2,302 primary school students were recruited. Each student completed a questionnaire and submitted one urine and one stool sample.ResultsThe prevalence of schistosomiasis haematobium was 23.7%, while schistosomiasis mansoni was not detected among the study participants. S. haematobium infection was identified in all areas, with the highest prevalence in the western locality of SK State. The infection was associated with the distance between home/school and open water sources. In addition, S. haematobium infection was associated with the existence of and distance to open water sources, higher frequency of contact with open water, absence of a health advocacy group in the school and history of schistosomiasis treatment.ConclusionsThis study highlights schistosomiasis as a public health problem in SK State. The findings will guide the schistosomiasis Control Program of the State Ministry of Health in developing and applying treatment plans for schistosomiasis in SK State.

A commercial trial evaluating three open water sources for farmed ducks: effects on water usage and water quality

1. Providing open water to farmed ducks is beneficial for their health and behaviour but, at commercial densities, may also have negative consequences for the health of the ducks, the productivity of the farms and environmental contamination. 2. The current experiment investigated the suitability of three types of open water resources in a commercial setting, assessing their effects on water usage and water quality. The three resources were: narrow troughs (15 cm wide and 8 cm deep), intermediate troughs (20 cm wide and 12 cm deep) and wide troughs (50 cm wide and 8 cm deep). A total of 23 flocks of ducks with a mean size of 4,540 ± 680 individuals and a final stocking density less than 17 kg/m2 were studied. 3. Intermediate troughs used twice as much water as narrow troughs and wide troughs. Intermediate troughs had the best microbiological water quality, wide troughs had the worst physical and microbiological quality and narrow troughs tended to be intermediate. 4. Open water provision resulted in high water usage, but this might be reduced by further investigating cleaning regimes, ballcock systems and the volumetric capacity of the troughs. It was difficult to maintain good water quality, and more research is needed to investigate the long term effects on productivity and public health.

A commercial trial evaluating three open water sources for farmed ducks: effects on health and production.

1. The present study investigated the effects on Pekin duck health and production of three open water resources in a commercial setting. The three resources were: narrow troughs (15 cm wide and 8 cm deep), intermediate troughs (20 cm wide and 12 cm deep) and wide troughs (50 cm wide and 8 cm deep). A total of 23 flocks of ducks were investigated, with an average size of 4540 ± 680 individuals and a final stocking density always under 17 kg/m2. 2. The health of the birds was considered to be of a good standard overall. The only health difference among the resources was that the foot condition of ducks provided with wide troughs was worse than those with intermediate troughs, whilst the foot condition of birds with narrow troughs was intermediate. The open water resources did not differ in their effects on the production measures assessed. 3. Properly managed open water did not have any major negative effects on the health or production of commercial Pekin ducks. Wide, intermediate and narrow troughs did not differ substantially in measures of health or productivity.

Pollution minimizing at traditional craft village by micro-credit program - case study from Tan Phu Dong rice powder production village

This paper introduces the results of a project initiated by Cantho University (CTU) on the introduction of micro-credits for addressing the environmental pollution in Vietnam’s craft villages. At Tan Phu Dong, a traditional rice powder production village in Sa Dec, Dong Thap, all wastes from domestic and production activities and animal husbandry were freely disposed into open water sources. This practice led to a negative impact on the local environment. With the financial support provided by the Bread for the World (BfdW), a micro-credit program was initiated in which farmers could borrow money to construct a biogas plant to treat animal husbandry and domestic wastes. In addition, the staff transferred biogas plant construction technology to the local masons and organized training courses on biogas plant operation and maintenance and biogas usage for the farmers and the local officials. 61 farmers borrowed money from the program to construct their biogas plants, followed by more than 250 farmers that constructed their biogas plants by their own finance after realizing the positive benefits of biogas plants. As result, the environmental pollution issue was solved step-by-step, thereby helping enhance the living conditions of the local community.&#x0D; Bài báo này trình bày biện pháp sử dụng nguồn quỹ tín dụng nhỏ để các hộ dân cải thiện tình trạng ô nhiễm môi trường ở các làng nghề Việt Nam. Tại làng nghề làm bột Tân Phú Đông -Sa Đéc -Đồng Tháp,các loại chất thải sinh hoạt, chất thải sản xuất và chăn nuôi xả thải bừa bãi đã gây ônhiễm môi trường nghiêm trọng. Với kinh phí tài trợ từ tổ chức Bánh mỳ cho thế giới (BfdW), các cán bộ trường Đại học Cần Thơ đã tổ chức cho người dân luân phiên vay vốn để xây dựng hầm ủ khí sinh học xử lý chất thải chăn nuôi và chất thảisinh hoạt. Bên cạnh đó còn tổ chức các lớp tập huấn chuyển giao công nghệ xây hầm ủ khí sinh học cho thợ xây địa phương, hướng dẫn vận hành và bảo dưỡng hầm ủ cho người dân và cán bộ địa phương. Thông qua nguồn vốn vay của dự án, có 61 hộ dân đã xây dựng hầm ủ khí sinh học và trên 250 hộ dân khác đã tự đầu tư xây dựng khi thấy được lợi ích của hầm ủ. Nhờ đó tình trạng ô nhiễm môi trường từng bước được giải quyết góp phần cải thiện điều kiện sống của người dân tại địa phương.

Evaluation of drinking water supply schemes in estate sector: A case study on Telbedda estate, Sri Lanka

In the past, Tamil workers on tea plantations in Central Sri Lanka depended on the management of the estate for all their basic needs. In 1992, the plantation industry was privatized and plantation companies claim they cannot afford social welfare programmes (Van &amp; Anita, 1998). As well, District and Provincial government programmes for housing, water supply and sanitation, health care and education in the village sector do not reach the estate communities. As a result of that Plantation workers are among the most economically deprived and therefore the most vulnerable to disease and ill-health.The purpose of this study was to evaluate the present status of drinking water supply schemes in tea estate sector in Sri Lanka. For this purpose six (6) water supply schemes of three (3) divisions of Telbedda Estate, Badulla, Sri Lanka were evaluated in November 2010. In all schemes water sources; Intakes; storage tanks; pipe lines; pump stations; stand posts, etc. were thoroughly studied. Catchment type and area, water flow quantity and quality (visual), water treatment methods and house hold level usage and wastewater disposal methods were also studied. Health Status with regard to water-borne dieses in the scheme collected from the Estate Medical Officer and Climatic data (2009) were also incorporated.The results show that the coldest month is December and the hottest is April. Even though the average annual rainfall is slightly over 2000 mm, the area falls into the wet zone of Sri Lanka. February is usually the driest month of the year. May-June-July and October-November are the two seasons with heavy rain falls. Most of the water schemes are based on open water sources in which water is harvested for supply through gravity flow by weir constructed across stream. The catchments are mostly under tea plantation or with a small scrubland. The high flows as 2 m3/min (during heavy rains) and low flows of around 0.075 m3/min in dry periods. Quality of the stream water is very low in turbidity, no colour, and no objectionable taste. The weirs are made of rubble masonry work provide sufficient clear head and small water pool to extract water from the stream. There was no intake chamber that prevents blockage of inlet due to siltation. The intake pipe, storage tanks and distribution lines are in poor condition, thus water overflows and with risk of contamination. The buried portions of the pipes only have very minimal cover. The distribution system does not include valves for control and water loss is about 10% through the leaks. Also other essential components for proper supply as washouts are not provided in the system. In fact there is no proper maintenance of the system. No treatment is provided to the raw water before distribution, boiling of consumptive water is not practiced in general. The entire population is served using stand posts. Approximately one stand post is available for 2-2.5 households.Since the water sources are located in the tea plantations, extensive application of agrochemicals, inadequate toilet facilities for working communities, improper solid waste and waste water discharge are the identified risk factors for the water sources. Improper design of wires, storage tanks, distribution system, and water stored at households are very likely to be contaminated by human activities. Monitoring of water quality, provision of systematically designed water supply schemes with adequate healthcare and sanitary facilities are highly advisable for the estate community in order to secure their living condition.

Environmental signals in a highly resolved ice core from James Ross Island, Antarctica

[1] The accumulation, isotopic and chemical signals of an ice core from James Ross Island, Antarctica, are investigated for the interval from 1967 to 2008. Over this interval, comparison with station, satellite and reanalysis data allows for a detailed assessment of the environmental information preserved in the ice. Accumulation at James Ross Island is enhanced during years when the circumpolar westerlies are weak, allowing more precipitation events to reach the northeastern Antarctic Peninsula. The stable water isotope composition of the ice core has an interannual temperature dependence consistent with the spatial isotope-temperature gradient across Antarctica, and preserves information about both summer and winter temperature variability in the region. Sea salts in the ice core are derived from open water sources in the marginal sea ice zone to the north of James Ross Island and transported to the site by strengthened northerly and westerly winds in the winter. A strong covariance with temperature means that the sea salt record may be able to be utilized, in conjunction with the isotope signal, as an indicator of winter temperature. Marine biogenic compounds in the ice core are derived from summer productivity within the sea ice zone to the south of James Ross Island. This source region may have become significant only in recent decades, when the collapse of nearby ice shelves established new sites of open water with high summer productivity. These findings provide a foundation for interpreting the environmental signals in the James Ross Island ice core, which extends though the whole Holocene and represents the oldest ice core that has been recovered from the Antarctic Peninsula region.

Factors associated with pastoral community knowledge and occurrence of mycobacterial infections in Human-Animal Interface areas of Nakasongola and Mubende districts, Uganda

BackgroundNontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are emerging opportunistic pathogens whose role in human and animal disease is increasingly being recognized. Major concerns are their role as opportunistic pathogens in HIV/AIDS infections. The role of open natural water sources as source and livestock/wildlife as reservoirs of infections to man are well documented. This presents a health challenge to the pastoral systems in Africa that rely mostly on open natural water sources to meet livestock and human needs. Recent study in the pastoral areas of Uganda showed infections with same genotypes of NTM in pastoralists and their livestock. The aim of this study was to determine the environmental, animal husbandry and socio-demographic factors associated with occurrence and the pastoral community knowledge of mycobacterial infections at the human-environment-livestock/wildlife interface (HELI) areas in pastoral ecosystems of Uganda.MethodsTwo hundred and fifty three (253) individuals were subjected to a questionnaire survey across the study districts of Nakasongola and Mubende. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression analysis.ResultsHumans sharing of the water sources with wild animals from the forest compared to savannah ecosystem (OR = 3.3), the tribe of herding pastoral community (OR = 7.9), number of rooms present in household (3-5 vs. 1-2 rooms) (OR = 3.3) were the socio-demographic factors that influenced the level of knowledge on mycobacterial infections among the pastoral communities. Tribe (OR = 6.4), use of spring vs. stream water for domestic use (OR = 4.5), presence of sediments in household water receptacle (OR = 2.32), non separation of water containers for drinking and domestic use (OR = 2.46), sharing of drinking water sources with wild animals (OR = 2.1), duration of involvement of >5 yrs in cattle keeping (OR = 3.7) and distance of household to animal night shelters (>20 meters) (OR = 3.8) were significant socio-demographic factors associated with the risk of occurrence of mycobacterioses among the pastoral communities in Uganda.ConclusionThe socio-demographic, environmental and household related factors influence the risk of occurrence as well as pastoralists' knowledge of mycobacterial infections in the pastoral households at the human-environment-livestock/wildlife pastoral interface areas of Uganda.

The use of Biological Index of Pollution (BIP) in assessing quality of rural water sources in Zaria, Nigeria

The biological index of pollution (BIP) which hinges on the responses of aquatic biota to pollution of water sources was used to assess the quality of some water sources in Zaria area, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from 15 stations comprising three open water sources (lakes) and twelve hand-dug wells on a monthly basis for a period of 24 months. Ten liters of the samples from wells were concentrated to 50 ml by filtering through 70 meshes per cm2 plankton net. Collections from the lakes was by means of dragging net over a 3 meter distance in the water. The water was also concentrated to 50 ml. Using the BIP of Horasawa as modified by Palmer, the water quality situation of the sources were classified into betasaprobic and alphasaprobic. Some of the water sources, especially in the rainy season, gradually shifted in quality from betasaprobism to alphasaprobism. The BIP method gave a satisfactory indication of the quality status of each water source especially when the results obtained were compared with the result of physico-chemical analysis of the water sources. However, unless the water sources contain both phytoplankton and zooplankton, which are key variables in the BIP computation, the index proved difficult to apply. Key Words: Rural Water Sources, Water Quality, Biological Index.