Open-path Measurements Research Articles

An open-path observatory for greenhouse gases based on near-infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy

Abstract. Monitoring the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases (GHG) carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) is a key ingredient for fostering our understanding of the mechanisms behind the sources and sinks of these gases and for verifying and quantitatively attributing their anthropogenic emissions. Here, we present the instrumental setup and performance evaluation of an open-path GHG observatory in the city of Heidelberg, Germany. The observatory measures path-averaged concentrations of CO2 and CH4 along a 1.55 km path in the urban boundary layer above the city. We combine these open-path data with local in situ measurements to evaluate the representativeness of these observation types on the kilometer scale. This representativeness is necessary to accurately quantify emissions, since atmospheric models tasked with this job typically operate on kilometer-scale horizontal grids. For the operational period between 8 February and 11 July 2023, we find a precision of 2.7 ppm (0.58 %) and 18 ppb (0.89 %) for the dry-air mole fractions of CO2 (xCO2) and CH4 (xCH4) in 5 min measurements, respectively. After bias correction, the open-path measurements show excellent agreement with the local in situ data under atmospheric background conditions. Both datasets show clear signals of traffic CO2 emissions in the diurnal xCO2 cycle. However, there are particular situations, such as under southeasterly wind conditions, in which the in situ and open-path data reveal distinct differences up to 20 ppm in xCO2, most likely related to their different sensitivity to local emission and transport patterns. Our setup is based on a Bruker IFS 125HR Fourier transform spectrometer, which offers a spacious and modular design providing ample opportunities for future refinements of the technique with respect to finer spectral resolution and wider spectral coverage to provide information on gases such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide.

Real-World Application of Open-Path UV-DOAS, TDL, and FT-IR Spectroscopy for Air Quality Monitoring at Industrial Facilities

Open-path spectroscopy is known for its ability to provide real-time measurements of dozens of compounds over sampling paths of up to 1000 meters in length. Advances in open-path monitoring technology and data processing techniques, coupled with new regulatory requirements, have greatly increased the acceptance and widespread application of spectroscopy-based open-path measurements. Large industrial facilities adjacent to residential communities are a particular application of interest, because traditional fixed-point analyzers lack the spatial coverage of the open-path instruments. This work discusses technical and practical considerations for the installation and operation of more than 120 open-path analyzers that are currently providing continuous data at several oil refineries in California. Open-path analyzers include ultraviolet differential optical absorbance spectroscopy (UV-DOAS), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and tunable diode laser (TDL) technologies. We will discuss lessons learned from these projects, including fundamental approaches to compound identification, target species detectability, interferences, and data management.

Performance of open-path lasers and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic systems in agriculture emissions research

Abstract. The accumulation of gases into our atmosphere is a growing global concern that requires considerable quantification of the emission rates to mitigate the accumulation of gases in the atmosphere, especially the greenhouse gases (GHGs). In agriculture there are many sources of GHGs that require attention in order to develop practical mitigation strategies. Measuring these GHG sources often relies on highly technical instrumentation originally designed for applications outside of the emissions research in agriculture. Although the open-path laser (OPL) and open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR) spectroscopic techniques are used in agricultural research currently, insight into their contributing error to emissions research has not been the focus of these studies. The objective of this study was to assess the applicability and performance (accuracy and precision) of OPL and OP-FTIR spectroscopic techniques for measuring gas mole fractions from agricultural sources. We measured the mole fractions of trace gases methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ammonia (NH3), downwind of point and area sources with a known release rate. The mole fractions measured by OP-FTIR and OPL were also input into models of atmospheric dispersion (WindTrax) allowing the calculation of fluxes. Trace gas release recoveries with WindTrax were examined by comparing the ratio of estimated and known fluxes. The OP-FTIR provided the best performance regarding stability of drift in stable conditions. The CH4 OPL accurately detected the low background (free-air) level of CH4; however, the NH3 OPL was unable to detect the background values <10 ppbv. The dispersion modelling using WindTrax coupled with open-path measurements can be a useful tool to calculate trace gas fluxes from the well-defined source area.

QCL-Based Open-Path, Single-Pass Measurement of Ambient Carbon Monoxide Using R 1f /ΔI₁ WMS

This letter outlines a new robust wavelength modulation spectroscopy technique to achieve calibration-free measurements. The technique normalizes the magnitude of the <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$1^{st}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> harmonic signal by the amplitude of the laser’s linear intensity modulation, and uses the fact that the ratio of the intensity to the amplitude of the linear intensity modulation remains invariant at every point within a system and over time despite significant and unpredictable variations in the individual quantities. The technique is demonstrated using a mid-infrared quantum cascade laser for open-path measurements of ambient carbon monoxide with a single-pass detection limit of 12 ppb-m. The method is simple to implement and performs robustly for long durations of outdoor measurements.

Performance of an open-path near-infrared measurement system for measurements of CO&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; and CH&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;4&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; during extended field trials

Abstract. Open-path measurements of atmospheric composition provide spatial averages of trace gases that are less sensitive to small-scale variations and the effects of meteorology. In this study we introduce improvements to open-path near-infrared (OP-NIR) Fourier transform spectrometer measurements of CO2 and CH4. In an extended field trial, the OP-NIR achieved measurement repeatability 6 times better for CO2 (0.28 ppm) and 10 times better for CH4 (2.1 ppb) over a 1.55 km one-way path than its predecessor. The measurement repeatability was independent of path length up to 1.55 km, the longest distance tested. Comparisons to co-located in situ measurements under well-mixed conditions characterise biases of 1.41 % for CO2 and 1.61 % for CH4 relative to in situ measurements calibrated to World Meteorological Organisation – Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO-GAW) scales. The OP-NIR measurements can detect signals due to local photosynthesis and respiration, and local point sources of CH4. The OP-NIR is well-suited for deployment in urban or rural settings to quantify atmospheric composition on kilometre scales.

Performance of open-path GasFinder3 devices for CH&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;4&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; concentration measurements close to ambient levels

Abstract. Open-path measurements of methane (CH4) with the use of GasFinder systems (Boreal Laser Inc, Edmonton Canada) have been frequently used for emission estimation with the inverse dispersion method (IDM), particularly from agricultural sources. It is common to many IDM applications that the concentration enhancement related to CH4 sources is small, typically between 0.05 and 0.5 ppm, and accurate measurements of CH4 concentrations are needed at concentrations close to ambient levels. The GasFinder3-OP (GF3) device for open-path CH4 measurements is the latest version of the commercial GasFinder systems by Boreal Laser Inc. We investigated the uncertainty of six GF3 devices from side-by-side intercomparison measurements and comparisons to a closed-path quantum cascade laser device. The comparisons were made at near-ambient levels of CH4 (85 % of measurements below 2.5 ppm) with occasional phases of elevated concentrations (max. 8.3 ppm). Relative biases as high as 8.3 % were found, and a precision for half-hourly data between 2.1 and 10.6 ppm-m (half width of the 95 % confidence interval) was estimated. These results deviate from the respective manufacturer specifications of 2 % and 0.5 ppm-m. Intercalibration of the GF3 devices by linear regression to remove measurement bias was shown to be of limited value due to drifts and step changes in the recorded GF3 concentrations.

Doppler velocimeter based on dual-comb absorption spectroscopy

The determination of airflow parameters is essential to the research of critical information on environment monitoring, chemical kinetics, and aerodynamic and propulsion applications. During the past few decades, tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy has become a common and efficient tool for the flow velocity measurement based on the Doppler shift of the absorption line. Dual-comb absorption spectroscopy (DCAS), as a state-of-the-art Fourier-transform broadband spectroscopic technique, not only can detect multiple trace molecules in parallel but also can extract Doppler shifts to derive the flow velocity through the analysis of dozens of molecular absorption lines simultaneously with high precision. Here, we report a proof-of-principle demonstration of the velocity measurements of acetylene at various flow velocities by means of a high-resolution and broadband DCAS. Mode-resolved Doppler-shifted rotational-vibrational lines in the P branch of acetylene molecules are obtained. A model for multiline Doppler frequency determination is investigated and experimentally verified. The flow velocity measurements with a measuring uncertainty down to the submeter per second over the range from 8.7 m/s to 44.8 m/s at an effective time resolution of 1 s and a measuring uncertainty of 1.97 m/s at 0.1 s are demonstrated. With broadband mid-infrared frequency combs covering atmospheric transmission windows, the open-path measurement for monitoring diffusion of the weak pollutant source would be realized.

Open Path Measurement of Atmospheric Transmission Spectra in the Region of 3000–3450 nm Using Tunable Mid Infrared Lidar

This paper reports the open path measurement of atmospheric transmission in the spectral region of 3000–3450 nm using a mid infrared tunable lidar in New Delhi (28.7oN, 77.1oE), India. Results on the measurement of atmospheric transmission in New Delhi are reported for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. A tunable infrared lidar system has been developed in-house, which transmits laser radiation with the wavelength interval of 1 nm in the above spectral band into the atmosphere. A 200-mm-diameter Cassegrain receiver telescope with mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector is used to collect the backscattered radiation from the atmosphere. The reflected laser radiation received from the tower located at a distance of 400 m is used to generate the transmission spectrum. Data recorded during the daytime measurements have been considered in this paper. Transmission spectra measured over several days showed a similar pattern, which confirmed the repeatability of the system performance. The measured spectra are also compared with the SkyCalc transmission model generated using the online database. Preliminary analysis indicated that these spectra had good agreement in general with a small shift in wavelength region. We have also analyzed the HITRAN database line-by-line and identified the possible major absorbing molecules in this band. The sources of air pollutants that absorb in this band and also discussed.

Probing greenhouse gases in turbulent atmosphere by long-range open-path wavelength modulation spectroscopy

Open-path measurements of greenhouse gases yield valuable data for atmospheric research. We present such a method based on wavelength modulation spectroscopy to measure greenhouse gases. A movable platform was developed capable of detecting atmospheric variations of the concentrations of methane and carbon dioxide. The system was calibrated in the laboratory and then moved to the field for continuous automated measurements over paths of up to 2.6 km. The intensity modulation caused by turbulence was also measured. The continuous monitoring of methane was carried out for more than 30 h. Similar measurements of carbon dioxide were performed for about 10 h. The results show that the detection limits of methane and carbon dioxide are ∼2 ppb and ∼20 ppm with integration times of 60 s and 20 s, respectively. We conclude by discussing the achieved parameters in comparison to results obtained with other techniques, which shows that the developed sensor is a promising tool for monitoring of greenhouse gases.

Mid-infrared dual-comb spectroscopy of volatile organic compounds across long open-air paths

Open-path measurements of atmospheric gas species in the air, including volatile organic compounds, are essential to quantify emissions from sources like oil and gas, forest fires, and industry. Here, we extend open-path dual-comb spectroscopy to probe the fundamental mid-infrared C-H stretch modes of volatile organic compounds over up to 1 km long open-air paths. The spectrometer’s high resolution and accuracy facilitates suppression of strong spectral clutter from atmospheric water and methane, allowing quantitative measurements of released acetone and isopropanol with a 1−σ sensitivity of 5.7 ppm·m and 2.4 ppm·m, respectively, and of ambient atmospheric ethane with a 1−σ sensitivity of 0.4 ppb, measured with 1 min time resolution over hours. These results underline the potential of dual-comb spectroscopy for quantifying emissions.

Short-term methane emissions from 2 dairy farms in California estimated by different measurement techniques and US Environmental Protection Agency inventory methodology: A case study

Reported estimates of CH4 emissions from ruminants and manure management are up to 2 times higher in atmospheric top-down calculations than in bottom-up (BU) inventories. We explored this discrepancy by estimating CH4 emissions of 2 dairy facilities in California with US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) methodology, which is used for BU inventories, and 3 independent measurement techniques: (1) open-path measurements with inverse dispersion modeling (hereafter open-path), (2) vehicle measurements with tracer flux ratio method, and (3) aircraft measurements with the closed-path method. All 3 techniques were used to estimate whole-facility CH4 emissions during 3 to 6 d per farm in the summer of 2016. In addition, open-path was used to estimate whole-facility CH4 emissions over 13 to 14 d per farm in the winter of 2017. Our objectives were to (1) compare whole-facility CH4 measurements utilizing the different measurement techniques, (2) compare whole-facility CH4 measurements to US EPA inventory methodology estimates, and (3) compare CH4 emissions between 2 dairies. Whole-facility CH4 estimates were similar among measurement techniques. No seasonality was detected for CH4 emissions from animal housing, but CH4 emissions from liquid manure storage were 3 to 6 times greater during the summer than during the winter measurement periods. The findings confirm previous studies showing that whole-facility CH4 emissions need to be measured throughout the year to estimate and evaluate annual inventories. Open-path measurements for liquid manure storage emissions were similar to monthly US EPA estimates during the summer, but not during the winter measurement periods. However, the numerical difference was relatively small considering yearly emission estimates. Manure CH4 emissions contributed 69 to 79% and 26 to 47% of whole-facility CH4 emissions during the summer and winter measurement periods, respectively. Methane yields from animal housing were similar between farms (on average 20.9 g of CH4/kg of dry matter intake), but CH4 emissions normalized by volatile solids (VS) loading from liquid manure storage (g of CH4 per day/kg of VS produced by all cattle per day) at 1 dairy were 1.7 and 3.5 times greater than at the other during the summer (234 vs. 137 g of CH4/kg of VS) and winter measurement periods (78 vs. 22 g of CH4/kg of VS), respectively. We attributed much of this difference to the proportion of manure stored in liquid (anaerobic) form, and suggest that manure management practices that reduce the amount of manure solids stored in liquid form could significantly reduce dairy CH4 emissions.

Automated enclosure and protection system for compact solar-tracking spectrometers

Abstract. A novel automated enclosure for protecting solar-tracking atmospheric instruments was designed, constructed, and successfully tested under various weather conditions. A complete automated measurement system, consisting of a compact solar-tracking Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (EM27/SUN) and the enclosure, has been deployed in central Munich to monitor greenhouse gases since 2016 and withstood all critical weather conditions, including rain, storms, and snow. It provided ground-based measurements of column-averaged concentrations of CO2, CH4, O2, and H2O throughout this time.The enclosure protects the instrument from harmful environmental influences while allowing open-path measurements in sunny weather. The newly developed and patented cover, a key component of the enclosure, permits unblocked solar measurements while reliably protecting the instrument. This enables dynamic decision regarding taking measurements, and thus increases the number of data samples. This enclosure leads to a fully automated measurement system, which collects data whenever possible without any human interaction. In the long term, the enclosure will provide the foundation for a permanent greenhouse gas monitoring sensor network.

Long open-path measurements of greenhouse gases in air using near-infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy

Abstract. In complex and urban environments, atmospheric trace gas composition is highly variable in time and space. Point measurement techniques for trace gases with in situ instruments are well established and accurate, but do not provide spatial averaging to compare against developing high-resolution atmospheric models of composition and meteorology with resolutions of the order of a kilometre. Open-path measurement techniques provide path average concentrations and spatial averaging which, if sufficiently accurate, may be better suited to assessment and interpretation with such models. Open-path Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTS) in the mid-infrared region, and differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) in the UV and visible, have been used for many years for open-path spectroscopic measurements of selected species in both clean air and in polluted environments. Near infrared instrumentation allows measurements over longer paths than mid-infrared FTS for species such as greenhouse gases which are not easily accessible to DOAS.In this pilot study we present the first open-path near-infrared (4000–10 000 cm−1, 1.0–2.5 µm) FTS measurements of CO2, CH4, O2, H2O and HDO over a 1.5 km path in urban Heidelberg, Germany. We describe the construction of the open-path FTS system, the analysis of the collected spectra, several measures of precision and accuracy of the measurements, and the results a four-month trial measurement period in July–November 2014. The open-path measurements are compared to calibrated in situ measurements made at one end of the open path. We observe significant differences of the order of a few ppm for CO2 and a few tens of ppb for CH4 between the open-path and point measurements which are 2 to 4 times the measurement repeatability, but we cannot unequivocally assign the differences to specific local sources or sinks. We conclude that open-path FTS may provide a valuable new tool for investigations of atmospheric trace gas composition in complex, small-scale environments such as cities.

Open-path measurement of ozone and methane gases using quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy

ABSTRACTWe demonstrate a standoff system based on quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy technique for the concentration measurements of atmospheric ozone and methane. The technique is a modified version of Photoacoustic spectroscopy. Two primary features of this technique are the employment of a tunable quantum cascade laser and a resonant quartz-crystal tuning fork detector. Both of these features facilitate simultaneous sensing of multiple molecular species. External-cavity quantum cascade laser having a spectral range from 7 to 10 micron is used. Diurnal concentration variations of methane and ozone are estimated for open-path up to 25 m. The ambient methane and ozone concentration maxima were observed to have values of 3.5 parts per million by volume and 140 parts per billion by volume, respectively. Finite-element mesh-based software is used to simulate the Eigen frequency of the tuning fork sensor. High-resolution transmission molecular spectroscopic database of atmospheric gases and the real-time gas concentration data from the Delhi Pollution Control Committee have been used as references.

Near-infrared open-path measurement of CO₂ concentration in the urban atmosphere.

Average concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) has been measured over a path length of 5.1 km in the lower troposphere by the method of differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) using a near-infrared light source based on amplified spontaneous emission. The analysis of CO2 absorption intensity around 1575 nm observed during 10 days over the Chiba city area has revealed that the CO2 concentration varied in the range of around 360-450 ppmv, with presumable influence of air mass advection from nearby industrial facilities. In addition, a good correlation has been found in relative humidity values between the DOAS and meteorological station data. As a whole, the present result indicates the usefulness of such a DOAS approach for measuring the concentration of CO2 averaged over an optical path of a few kilometers in the lower troposphere.

Simultaneous open-path determination of road side mono-nitrogen oxides employing mid-IR laser spectroscopy

Within this work we present the application of a new, portable open-path measurement system for the simultaneous determination of NO and NO2 in the atmosphere. The system is based on two pulsed distributed feedback mid-IR quantum cascade laser and a fast thermo-electrically cooled mercury–cadmium-telluride detector. Limits of detection (LoD) below 1 μgm−3 are achieved for both analytes during one minute measurement time and using an optical path-length of up to 428 m. An accuracy below 10 ngm−3 and a precision below 0.76 μgm−3 could be calculated based on minute mean values for 100 m path-length. Reducing the measurement time to one second LoDs of approximately 7 μgm−3 are obtained. During the 300 ns laser pulses micro-spectra for NO and NO2, each of typically 1.2 cm−1 width and a spectral resolution of 0.02 cm−1, are recorded and evaluated. The chosen rotation-vibrational doublets are located at approximately 1900 cm−1 for NO and 1630 cm−1 for NO2. The obtained results show good correlation to the reference method based on chemiluminescence. A particular advantage of the new method is that it provides real time information on the existing NO/NO2 ratio in the measured air. This in turn allows distinguishing between the different emission sources and is demonstrated here by data obtained from different vehicles passing close to the measurement path. These events temporally increased the NO and NO2 concentrations at characteristic ratios from the background values.

On-Road Ammonia Emissions Characterized by Mobile, Open-Path Measurements

Ammonia (NH3) is a key precursor species to atmospheric fine particulate matter with strong implications for regional air quality and global climate change. NH3 from vehicles accounts for a significant fraction of total emissions of NH3 in urban areas. A mobile platform is developed to measure NH3, CO, and CO2 from the top of a passenger car. The mobile platform conducted 87 h of on-road measurements, covering 4500 km in New Jersey and California. The average on-road emission factor (EF) in CA is 0.49 ± 0.06 g NH3 per kg fuel and agrees with previous studies in CA (0.3-0.8 g/kg). The mean on-road NH3:CO emission ratio is 0.029 ± 0.005, and there is no systematic difference between NJ and CA. On-road NH3 EFs increase with road gradient by an enhancement of 53 mg/kg fuel per percentage of gradient. On-road NH3 EFs show higher values in both stop-and-go driving conditions and freeway speeds with a minimum near 70 km/h. Consistent with prior studies, the on-road emission ratios suggest a highly skewed distribution of NH3 emitters. Comparisons with existing NJ and CA on-road emission inventories indicate that there may be an underestimation of on-road NH3 emissions in both NJ and CA. We demonstrate that mobile, open-path measurements provide a unique tool to help quantitatively understand the on-road NH3 emissions in urban and suburban settings.

An instrument for measurements of BrO with LED-based Cavity-Enhanced Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy

Abstract. The chemistry of the troposphere and specifically the global tropospheric ozone budget is affected by reactive halogen species such as bromine monoxide (BrO) or chlorine monoxide (ClO). Especially BrO plays an important role in the processes of ozone destruction, disturbance of NOx and HOx chemistry, oxidation of dimethyl sulfide (DMS), and the deposition of elementary mercury. In the troposphere BrO has been detected in polar regions, at salt lakes, in volcanic plumes, and in the marine boundary layer. For a better understanding of these processes, field measurements as well as reaction chamber studies are performed. In both cases instruments with high spatial resolution and high sensitivity are necessary. A Cavity-Enhanced Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (CE-DOAS) instrument with an open path measurement cell was designed and applied. For the first time, a CE-DOAS instrument is presented using an UV LED in the 325–365 nm wavelength range. In laboratory studies, BrO as well as HONO, HCHO, O3, and O4 could be reliably determined at detection limits of 20 ppt for BrO, 9.1 ppb for HCHO, 970 ppt for HONO, and 91 ppb for O3, for five minutes integration time. The best detection limits were achieved for BrO (11 ppt), HCHO (5.1 ppb), HONO (490 ppt), and O3 (59 ppb) for integration times of 81 minutes or less. Comparison with established White system (WS) DOAS and O3 monitor measurements demonstrate the reliability of the instrument.

Experimental evaluation of water vapour cross-sensitivity for accurate eddy covariance measurement of CO2 flux using open-path CO2/H2O gas analysers

Non-dispersive infrared CO2/H2O gas analysers produce erroneous CO2 outputs when CO2 is measured in humid air, unless a correction for water vapour cross-sensitivity is applied. Spectroscopic cross-sensitivities arising from direct absorption interference and from the pressure broadening effect are significant in CO2 flux measurements by the eddy covariance technique using open-path gas analysers over the ocean, as opposed to land-surface measurements, where CO2 fluxes are orders of magnitude larger. In this study, a widely used analyser with manufacturer-determined correction coefficients for both cross-sensitivities was tested by laboratory experiments. Our results showed that the correction coefficient for direct absorption interference was not optimised to calculate CO2 flux accurately, and that the correction coefficient for the pressure broadening caused overestimation of the CO2 mixing ratio flux in the same direction as the water vapour flux. Overestimations of open-path eddy covariance measurements of upward CO2 fluxes in previous ocean observations probably resulted from inaccuracies in both of these correction coefficients. We also found that slight changes in spectroscopic cross-sensitivities due to contamination of the analyser's optical windows by sea salt caused a low bias in CO2 outputs with increasing H2O; however, this contamination effect was not always observed in repeated tests under different contamination conditions. We suggest that previously proposed methods for correcting the effect of optical window contamination is of limited value and that measurement of small CO2 fluxes by the open-path eddy covariance technique over the ocean should be performed after confirming the spectroscopic cross-sensitivity and ensuring that the optical windows are as clean as possible.

Ground demonstration of trace gas lidar based on optical parametric amplifier

We report on the development effort of a nanosecond-pulsed optical parametric amplifier (OPA) for remote trace gas measurements for Mars and Earth. The OPA output has ∼500 MHz linewidth and is widely tunable at both near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths, with an optical-optical conversion efficiency of up to ∼39% . Using this laser source, we demonstrated open-path measurements of CH 4 (3291 and 1652 nm), CO 2 (1573 nm), H 2 O (1652 nm), and CO (4764 nm) on the ground. The simplicity, tunability, and power scalability of the OPA make it a strong candidate for general planetary lidar instruments, which will offer important information on the origins of the planet's geology, atmosphere, and potential for biology.