Opening Height Research Articles

Buoyancy-driven flow for surface reaction on vertical walls in multilayered open cavities.

This study analyzes the influences of surface reactions on the natural convective flow, temperature, and oxygen concentration distributions in vertically placed multilayered cavities. A mathematical model for this problem is formulated with proper boundary conditions. At first, the governing equations are made dimensionless using the variable transformations. Then, those are solved utilizing the finite element method (FEM), and the stream function is calculated from the Poisson equation. Numerical results show that the maximum stream function is significantly increased while maximum temperature and remaining oxygen concentration are considerably decreased with higher Rayleigh number. On the contrary, the buoyancy force parameter and the Lewis number cause an increase in maximum values of stream function and temperature but a decrease in remaining concentration. For increasing Lewis number and reactant consumption parameter, the flow structure in cavities significantly changes. In addition, maximum values of stream function and temperature are significantly increased with the increase of the heat release parameter. When the opening heights are wider, maximum stream function and remaining concentration are higher, however maximum temperature first becomes lower and then becomes higher. For any value of the parameters, the maximum flow intensity occurs adjacent to the bottom opening of the top cavity of the multilayered open cavities. However, maximum temperature is seen at the top left corner of the top cavity of the system.

Determination of gender dimorphism of the morphometric indicators of the human orbit depending on the craniotype

The issue of studying sexual dimorphism of skull structures depending on the craniotype remains relevant. The purpose was to study the morphometric parameters of the human orbit depending on the craniotype and gender. The study was conducted on 125 computed tomography scans of people's heads aged 25 to 85 years, performed using a computer tomography Neusoft, NeuViz 16 Essence 16-Slice CT Scanner System (Neusoft Medical Sytems Co, USA). Craniometric measurements were performed using programs Horos, ver. 4.0.1 (Neusoft Medical Sytems Co, USA) and RadiAnt Dicom Viewer, ver. 2024.1 (Medixant, Poland). The study was conducted with a slice thickness of 1.5 mm, followed by reconstruction in three planes. The basic facial index was calculated using the Garson-Kolman formula. It has been established that the height, width, perimeter, area, and conditional radius of the orbital opening of male euriprosopes are significantly different from similar indicators of females. In mesoprosopes, only the height of the orbital opening of men and women has a reliably significant difference. No statistically significant difference in the above indicators between representatives of different sexes was found in leptoprosops. No statistically significant differences in arithmetic mean values of the investigated indicators of the right and left eye sockets, as well as persons of different age groups, were found. According to the orbital index, all research objects were divided into 3 groups: khameconchs, mesoconchs, hypsiconchs. It has been established that the majority of both males and females belong to hypsiconchs, mesoconchs occupy an intermediate position, and the smallest group is khameconchs. The most widespread groups are hypsiconchs with euryprosopic facial skull shape and hypsiconchs with mesoprosopic shape. Keywords: skull, morphometry, orbital index, orbital opening.

Flow microbubble emission boiling (MEB) in open microchannels for durable and efficient heat dissipation

Microbubble emission boiling (MEB) has been reported to be an advanced heat transfer mechanism due to its significant heat dissipation capacity at high heat flux. Microchannel heat sinks are considered to be effective heat transfer carriers, but MEB is difficult to be triggered in conventional microchannels due to insufficient mainflow subcooling and restriction of narrow channel walls. In this work, we conducted flow MEB experiments in plain and lasered open microchannels with various inlet temperatures (Tinlet) and open gap height (Hg). The open configuration can provide adequate mainflow subcooling and extra flow area to trigger MEB. The results showed that MEB occurred in plain open microchannels as a transition flow pattern between bubbly flow and flow reversal at Tinlet ≤ 25 °C and Hg = 0.3 mm, with a significant temperature drop after a one-time flow reversal, providing abundant vapor composition as MEB evaporation cores; MEB did not happen at higher Tinlet and larger Hg (1 mm). However, in lasered open microchannels, MEB was triggered at the beginning of flow boiling at Tinlet ≤ 65 °C with Hg = 0.3 and 1 mm, without temperature drop or flow reversal. This demonstrated that the required inlet subcooling, heat flux and temperature gradient in vertical direction for MEB initiation were simultaneously reduced in lasered microchannels. The two-phase heat transfer coefficient (htp) of MEB was significantly increased (up to 77.8 %) compared to conventional bubbly flow, due to the faster bubble nucleation frequency and rapid impact from the subcooled mainflow to channel walls, and was further enhanced in lasered microchannels. The durability of MEB in plain microchannel was unsatisfactory, as the persistent flow reversal dominated the flow pattern after ∼3750 s at G = 300 ml/min, Tinlet = 25 °C, Hg = 0.3 mm and qeff ∼1450 kW/m2. However, in lasered microchannels, MEB ran steadily for 22500 s at the same working condition. This study provided an effective and accessible method to achieve durable MEB in microchannels with excellent heat dissipation capacity, offering valuable insights for further thermal management engineering applications.

Hydrodynamic Performance Investigations of OWC and Hybrid System: Geometry of OWC and Rectangular Submerged Breakwater

Due to its simplicity and high reliability, the Oscillating Water Column (OWC) has been a prominent focus of research. This study investigates the impact of OWC geometry on hydrodynamic performance by analyzing the effects of draft, chamber width, and Power Take Off (PTO) damping on energy conversion efficiency, reflection coefficient, transmission coefficient, and dissipation coefficient. The motion of the water column under different PTO damping conditions is analyzed. In addition, the hydrodynamic performance of the submerged breakwater-OWC hybrid system is studied and compared with that of a standalone OWC. The results show that a higher opening height improves the energy conversion efficiency of the OWC under medium-to-long waves. There is an optimal draft for the OWC to maximize the energy conversion efficiency for different wave periods. Meanwhile, the optimal draft increases with the wave period. Increasing PTO damping does not change the resonance period of the OWC, while the free surface elevation inside the chamber reduces. Within a range of periods around the maximum inclination, multi-point measurements of the wave elevation in the chamber are necessary to reduce measurement errors caused by the spatial non-uniformity of the water column. The submerged breakwater-OWC hybrid system exhibits a higher energy conversion efficiency under medium-to-long waves compared to a standalone OWC, and there is an optimal breakwater length.

Impact of core thickness and opening height on the combustion characteristics of polyethylene sandwich panels

AbstractPolyethylene (PE) sandwich panels are being increasingly used in external building insulation, but they may also contribute to the upward spread of flames during fires. This work investigates the impact of core thickness and opening height on the combustion characteristics of PE sandwich panels. Small‐scale experiments and numerical simulations show that flame stretching and intermittent flames occurr during combustion. The average flame spread height is proportional to the thickness and the opening height, and a dimensionless relationship between the flame height and the characteristic length is established. As the thickness increases, the high‐temperature zone within the PE sandwich panels increases. The average mass loss rate is proportional to the thickness and opposite to the opening height. The findings of this study hold crucial theoretical significance for ensuring the safe design of windows and PE sandwich panels in high‐rise buildings.

Clinical correlation of optic nerve head analysis performed by SD-OCT in children with pseudopapilledema and papilledema

PurposeTo investigate some diagnostic indicators in optic nerve head (ONH) analysis of children with ‘Pseudopapilledema’ and ‘Papilledema’ by Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT). MethodsMedical records of 52 children with optic disc swelling, who were followed up by the departments of pediatric neurology and ophthalmology between May 2018 and May 2019 were reviewed retrospectively. Cases were classified as group 1 (Papilledema secondary to Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension) including 54 eyes of 27 cases, group 2 (Pseudopapilledema secondary to bilateral optic disc drusen) including 50 eyes of 25 cases and control group. Three-dimensional imaging of ONH, peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (RNLF) thickness, Bruch's membrane opening height in the nasal respectively temporal quadrant (BMHN, BMH-T) levels were measured by SD-OCT and B-mode ocular ultrasonography data of all cases were evaluated. ResultsWhen RNFL levels were compared between groups, nasal RNFL levels were found to be significantly higher in group 1 cases compared to group 2 (p < 0.001). In 3D imaging of the ONH among group 1 patients, the mean height of the apex in disc swelling was significantly higher than that of group 2 (p = 0,024). The apex in disc swelling was mostly observed to be localized at the middle and had a diffuse swelling pattern in group 1; whereas, in group 2, the it was localized mostly at the nasal quadrant. This variation was statistically significant (p < 0.001). When, Bruch's membrane opening height in the nasal respectively temporal quadrant (BMHN, BMH-T) levels were compared, the measurements obtained were found to be significantly higher in group 1 (p = 0,050 and p = 0,003 respectively). ConclusionNasal RNFL values of SD-OCT, Bruch's membrane opening height in the nasal respectively temporal quadrant (BMHN, BMH-T) levels, the location of the apex in disc swelling obtained by 3D analysis of the ONH are found to be potential diagnostic parameters when combined with clinical findings. It is important that the nasal quadrant elevation, where the highest peak in 3D imaging was measured, was higher in the papilledema group. The elevation of the optic disc peak in 3D imaging can be used as a parameter to help clinicians distinguish between optic disc drusen (ODD) and papilledema.

Evaluation navigation controlled gate of aging spillway on cavitation damage.

High-speed flow of clean water or water with sediment released from aging spillways may cause abrasion and cavitation on the concrete surface gradually. The occurrence of irregularities on the concrete surface can exacerbate the erosion problem. Which might jeopardize the safety of dams constantly, hence the rehabilitation efforts become urgent tasks in dam safety projects. This study employs a 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model to quantitatively analyze the cavitation risk on the aging concrete surface of the Chay 5 spillway in Ha Giang, Vietnam, under various operation scenarios. There are two standards used to measure cavitation: the cavitation index (σ) which indicates the danger due to the drop of pressure in rapid flow, and the new gasification index (β) which takes into consideration the formation and collapse of bubbles behind asperities. Three extreme flood cases may not result in potential cavitation because both σ and β exceed critical thresholds. Regarding the six controlled gate scenarios with normal water level, the σ profiles are approximated 1,0 showing a low likelihood of cavitation damage while the β values are smaller than 0.8, indicating a considerable risk of cavitation. Besides, the opening height of 100 cm poses the greatest risk of creating severe cavitation erosion in the concave area and slope portion. The flip bucket experienced the most vulnerable cavitation when the opening height is 400 cm. In addition, an approach to spillway surface rehabilitation involving specialized mortars has been presented. For aging conveyance structure, gasification index (β) takes into account irregularities surface, providing a more comprehensive assessment of the likelihood of cavitation damage than cavitation index (σ). After rehabilitation with anti-shrinkage high abrasion resistance mortar, the entire spillway surface is smooth. This allows for reducing the cavitation risk and improvement of life service thereof.

Recycled plastics based impact noise resilient layer development

Sustainability and the carbon footprint reduction is commonly associated with recycling and secondary use of materials, for example also in the building construction industry. For decades, experts have been dealing with this topic across the entire spectrum of the development of building structures. One of the areas where soft recycled materials find suitable application is the area of building acoustics with a focus on impact noise attenuation. This contribution focuses on resilient layers dedicated for lightweight floating floors. This type of flooring is very often used in the reconstruction of apartments in apartment buildings. There is usually no possibility to realize heavy floating floors or for static reasons or reasons of the structural height of rooms or door openings. The work focuses on the development of floor underlayer mats based on recycled material in several variants. These were experimentally compared with conventional materials used in practice as the so-called impact sound insulation layers under laminate floors in terms of improving the impact noise insulation as well as the dynamic stiffness and the loss factor.

Optimization of piezo pump and air impact cooling based on a synthetic jet

A synthetic jet piezo (PE) pump with an inlet channel structured akin to a diffuser/nozzle, featuring smoothed walls, was developed. The synthetic jet was characterized by analyzing the internal flow field of the PE pump. Furthermore, the flow performance of this novel PE pump was compared with that of a basic PE pump, thereby demonstrating the advantages of the proposed design. Utilizing regression equations and standardized effect plots derived from the response surface method, both the main and interaction effects of parameters on the flow rate were assessed. Subsequently, the flow performance of the optimized PE pump was evaluated through experimental testing. Additionally, air impact cooling experiments were conducted, focusing on the influence of the impact distance on cooling performance. The findings indicated that the PE pump's open cavity height, closed cavity height, outlet diameter, and orifice diameter were 1.3 mm, 0.5 mm, 1.5 mm, and 0.8 mm, respectively. The proposed synthetic jet PE pump achieved a flow rate of 1832.3 ml/min at 50 Vpp and 4.6 kHz. Furthermore, it was observed that the operation of the PE pump reduced the temperature of the heater by 63 % at an impact distance of 20 mm.

Research on Constant-Flow Water-Saving Device Based on Dynamic Mesh Transient Flow Field Analysis

For the control of the outlet flow rate of a constant-flow water-saving device under different water pressures, this study developed and implemented a custom User-Defined Function (UDF) program to simulate the dynamic motion of the water-saving valve within the Fluent environment. This simulation realistically represents the valve’s behavior under varying water pressures, thereby accurately predicting the valve opening height to comply with national regulatory standards. Firstly, a dynamic grid transient CFD simulation model of the water-saving valve was established using a Fluent UDF program written in C language. The parameters of the elastic elements in the water-saving device flow control system were designed to achieve control of the outlet flow rate. Then, the benchmarking analysis of the aforementioned simulation model was completed based on the flow rate test results of the water-saving device. Finally, the relationship between physical quantities and flow field distribution characteristics of the water-saving valve was analyzed under three different water pressures specified in the national standard. Based on the optimization calculations, the valve opening heights under three different water pressures were obtained, ensuring that the outlet flow rates meet the regulatory standards set by the national authorities. Compared with traditional methods that rely solely on steady-state simulations or empirical data, the method proposed in this paper represents a significant advancement.

Characteristics of wave loading and viscous energy loss of a bottom-sitting U-OWC wave energy device: A validated numerical perspective

This study involves numerical simulations of regular waves interacting with a bottom-sitting circular OWC wave energy converter with a U-shaped duct (circular U-OWC). A numerical wave tank is built based on the RANS equation and is validated against experiments. The effect of water depth and the height of the outer tube of the U-shaped duct on capture efficiency, wave loading, and viscous energy loss is investigated numerically. Results show that the height of the outer tube of the U-shaped duct has a significant effect on the capture efficiency of the device. Wave loading analysis reveals a critical mode of stability that may threaten the operation safety of the device. It is found that increasing the height of the U-shaped duct opening increases the viscous energy loss inside the U-shaped duct. A semi-theoretical model between work done by waves to the device and the viscous energy loss in the U-shaped duct is established, numerical data indicates that a significant amount of work done by waves to the device is lost in viscous effects. This suggests that certain optimization for reducing wave loading could possibly also reduce viscous energy loss, thus improving the overall efficiency of the device.

Performance Prediction of GFRP-Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams Containing a Web Opening in the Shear Span

This study aimed to investigate the nonlinear structural behavior of concrete deep beams internally reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) reinforcing bars and containing a web opening of various sizes and locations within the shear span. Three-dimensional (3D) numerical simulation models were developed for large-scale GFRP-reinforced concrete deep beams (300 mm × 1200 mm × 5000 mm) with a shear span-to-depth ratio (a/h) of 1.04. Predictions of the numerical models were validated against published experimental data. A parametric study was conducted to examine the effect of varying the opening size and location on the shear response. Results of the numerical analysis indicated that the strength of the deep beam models with an opening in the middle of the shear span decreased with an increase in either the opening width or height. The rate of the strength reduction caused by increasing the opening height was, however, more significant than that produced by increasing the opening width. Placing a web opening in the compression zone close to the load plate was very detrimental to the beam strength. Conversely, a negligible strength reduction was recorded when the web opening was placed in the tension side above the flexural reinforcement and away from the natural load path. Data of the parametric study were utilized to introduce simplified analytical formulas capable of predicting the shear capacity of GFRP-reinforced concrete deep beams with a web opening in the shear span.

Experimental Study of the Relationship between Slope and Opening Height of OWC Type Wave Breaker Model on Wave Reflection

Breakwater is a very effective wave dampening building to be used as a coastal protection against coastal abrasion by destroying wave energy before it reaches the coast. The working mechanism of the OWC type is the rise and fall of ocean waves which will push the air in the OWC column, then will rotate the turbine connected to the generator to produce electricity. This study aims to determine the effect of slope and opening height on breakwater on wave reflection. Then analyze the parameters that affect the amount of wave reflection and compare the resulting wave parameters. This research was conducted at the Hydraulics Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hasanuddin University. The method used was experimental based. The resulting wave characteristics consist of three depth variations, three period variations and three stroke variations. The research model used is an Oscillating Water Column (OWC) type breakwater with slope variations of 45°, 60° and 90° and open wall variations as high as 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm. The reading of the water level fluctuation is done electronically through the reading of the wave monitor. The results showed that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is influenced by structural parameters, namely the slope and height of the model opening and hydraulic parameters, namely depth, period and wave height. The effect of the model slope on the reflection coefficient is that the greater the slope, the greater the reflection coefficient value. The effect of the model opening height is that the greater the opening height, the smaller the reflection coefficient value.

The critical discontinuity of vertical temperature distribution along window opening height from intermediate-scale compartment fire

The fire plume spilled from a window is believed to be one of the main fire sources with respect to a building façade fire, which happened previously in China. To have a deep understanding of vertical temperature distribution at window opening is of significance. In the current contribution, a series of compartment fire tests under over-ventilation were conducted with a 1.35 m × 1.35 m × 1.35 m compartment to clarify the critical discontinuity position (HD) by varying window opening sizes, opening aspect and heat release rate (HRR). Temperature history at the window openings were recorded by a thermocouple net. A theoretical calculation method of HD is detailed according to the compartment configuration. It is found that the critical discontinuity area is observed apparently along the window opening height, which has a big temperature difference. By the comparison of experimental and theoretical results, the constant comprehensive coefficient of 1.68, 1.92 and 3.85 of 300 kW, 600 kW and 900 kW are got for an engineered empirical prediction model are proposed, respectively. It provides an insight for the understanding of critical temperature discontinuity and reference for engineering calculations.

A deep learning-based super-resolution method for building height estimation at 2.5 m spatial resolution in the Northern Hemisphere

Building height is an important indicator for assessing the level of urban development along the vertical dimension. Existing large-scale building height estimation studies focus on coarse spatial resolution (e.g., 10, 500, and 1000 m), which cannot reveal height variations across buildings in urban areas. High-resolution images (e.g., < 5 m resolution) can support building-scale height estimation, but they usually have small spatial coverage and are not openly accessible. In this context, we proposed a deep learning-based super-resolution method to generate building height maps at a spatial resolution of 2.5 m using Sentinel-1/2 images. The proposed method consisted of two parts: 1) a super-resolution module (SR) for learning high-resolution features; and 2) a height stratification estimation module (HS) for guiding the network to learn different height levels to mitigate the imbalanced distribution of height values. We created an open building height dataset with 45,000 samples covering multiple urban areas in the Northern Hemisphere, including China, the conterminous United States (CONUS), and Europe. Experimental results showed that for height estimation at the pixel level, the proposed method obtained a root mean square error of 10.318 m in China, 5.654 m in CONUS, and 4.113 m in Europe, respectively. Predicted results provided rich spatial details, due to the inclusion of the super-resolution module, which was heavily missed by existing large-scale studies. Moreover, we calculated the mean and standard deviation of building height in 301 urban centers, each having at least a population of 500,000, and found that the buildings in China were the highest (11.353 m ± 9.543 m), followed by CONUS (8.487 m ± 6.202 m) and Europe (8.136 m ± 5.020 m). Ablation studies indicated that the joint use of Sentinel-1/2 images and the proposed modules (SR and HS) can effectively improve the performance of building height estimation. The building dataset we generated provides great potential in high-resolution database updating, urban planning, and natural disaster assessment, and indeed, a new perspective of how we can utilize cutting-edge satellite imaging technology in urban observation, measurement, monitoring, and management. The dataset and code of this study will be available at: https://github.com/lauraset/Super-resolution-building-height-estimation.

An Investigation of the Acoustic Enclosure of an Air Conditioning Compressor Using Response Surface Analysis and Topological Rigidity Optimization

A novel split-type air conditioning system is introduced to balance usability and portability. Unlike conventional split-type systems, where the compressor is typically placed outside, this system situates the compressor within the indoor unit, which may expose users to compressor noise. There are prominent peaks in the compressor noise spectrum, particularly at the compressor operating frequency and its harmonics, notably the second and third harmonics. The research presents a multilayered acoustic enclosure specifically designed for air conditioning compressors to address this issue without modifying the compressor or indoor unit casing. In order to get better sound insulation performance, a response surface methodology (RSM) is applied to optimize the thickness ratio, open area ratio, and open area height of the acoustic enclosure with predefined thickness. In addition, topological optimization is employed to strengthen weak areas of the acoustic enclosure. Then, experimental trials using the proposed acoustic enclosure are conducted in a semianechoic chamber. Results demonstrate significant reductions in noise levels, including 7.99 dB(A), 5.69 dB(A), and 5.19 dB(A) reductions in the fundamental frequency, second harmonic, and third harmonic noise of the compressor’s operating frequency, respectively.

Numerical and Analytical Study of the Cyclic Behavior of ADAS Damper and the Effect of Axial Force on its Behavior

ABSTRACT The objective of this research was to study ADAS dampers and develop equations to calculate their seismic parameters. A model was used to analyze the dampers with various variables. The study proposed equations for stiffness, energy dissipation, and strength of the dampers. It also identified the variables with the most and least impact on the results. The effect of axial force on damper performance was investigated, including the calculation of critical load and examining its influence on stiffness, strength, and ductility. Reducing the opening area and height and increasing the width of the damper increased energy dissipation and effective stiffness.

Impact resistance performance and simplified calculation method of web-opened steel beams under impact loads

To investigate the impact resistance performance of web-opened steel beams (WOSBs) under impact loads, 26 specimens of WOSBs were designed and performed the falling-hammer impact tests, focusing on the impact energy, inter-opening space, opening height, and steel strength. The test results showed that the local deformations of WOSBs exhibited Vierendeel shear deformation and out-of-plane lateral buckling of the web under impact loads. At the initial impact stage, the time delay effect between the peak impact force and the peak reaction force accounts for approximately 9.77% of the total impact duration. The increase in impact energy and opening height had an adverse effect on the impact resistance performance of WOSBs. That is, as the impact energy (or opening height) increases, the average residual displacements for H1, H2, and H3 (H1, H2, and H3 represent WOSBs corresponding to three different steel materials: Q235, Q550, and Q690, respectively) increase by approximately 23.85% (18.07%), 34.05% (24.00%), and 33.20% (37.20%), respectively. The average impact efficiencies for H1, H2, and H3 are 77.38%, 72.90%, and 72.74%, respectively. This indicates that the unique geometric characteristics of WOSBs can be effectively utilized in the design of energy-absorbing structures. In conjunction with current steel structure design standards, a calculation method for the impact resistance performance of WOSBs was proposed by introducing the dynamic amplification factor and energy absorption ratio.

Effect of Sluice Gate Opening Height on Spillway on Flow Characteristics (Physical Model)

Effect of Sluice Gate Opening Height on Spillway on Flow Characteristics (Physical Model)

Effect of Horizontal Distance of Web Opening on the Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of Castellated Steel Beams by an Analytical Approach

Objectives: The primary objective of this current research is to determine the ideal horizontal spacing for hexagonal web openings and their maximum load-bearing capacity through Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Methods: The ISMB150 was implemented as a cross-sectional profile to fabricate distinct models of castellated beams with heights of 225 mm. The height of the web openings remained constant at 150 mm for the castellated beam model. The entire analysis is being done on ANSYS 19.2. Findings: The analysis has revealed that, for castellated beams with shallower depths, an optimal horizontal spacing of 44.9 mm for the web openings yields an ultimate load-bearing capacity of 144.26 KN. The results of castellated beams are measured in terms of ultimate load-carrying capacity, span-to-deflection ratio, load density, failure location, span-to-beam depth ratio, and the ratio of horizontal distance of opening-to-opening depth. Novelty: This research contributes analytical findings for the ideal horizontal distance of hexagonal web opening through maximum load-bearing capacity. Castellated beams have gained immense popularity within the structural engineering community today due to their visually appealing design featuring a variety of web-opening shapes. The primary objective of this current research is to determine the ideal horizontal spacing for hexagonal web openings and their maximum load-bearing capacity through Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The ISMB150 was implemented as a cross-sectional profile to fabricate distinct models of castellated beams with heights of 225 mm. The height of the web openings remained constant at 150 mm for the castellated beam model. The analysis has revealed that, for castellated beams with shallower depths, an optimal horizontal spacing of 44.9 mm for the web openings yields an ultimate load-bearing capacity of 144.26 KN. The results of castellated beams are measured in terms of ultimate load-carrying capacity, span-to-deflection ratio, load density, failure location, span-to-beam depth ratio, and the ratio of horizontal distance of opening-to-opening depth. This research contributes valuable insights into optimizing the design of castellated beams for enhanced structural performance. Further exploration and validation could provide additional refinements and applications in structural engineering. Keywords: Horizontal distance of web opening, Number of openings, Ultimate load carrying capacity, Failure modes, ANSYS, Castellated beams