Open Forest Land Research Articles

Scientization or parametrization? Which system is more advantageous to environmental conservation in the reform of China's state-owned forest farms?

Government leadership and grassroots participation are the most typical institutional arrangements in natural resource management, a topic which has been the subject of vigorous debate for a long time. Individually, these systems are referred to as scientization and parametrization. This paper takes the reform of China's state-owned forest farms (SSFs) as a pointcut, comparing the effects of the 2011 policy (representing scientization) and the 2015 policy (representing parametrization) on environmental conservation. For the period from 2006 to 2018, China's provinces are analyzed via difference-in-differences (DID) and principal components difference-in-differences (PCDID) empirical strategies. The results show that the 2015 policy increased new afforestation by an average of 0.903 units, but the 2011 policy had no significant impact. The influence path of the 2015 policy was to curb corruption, relieve fiscal stress, and stimulate innovation, playing mechanism effects of 20.49%, 14.17%, and 33.55%, respectively. However, the 2015 policy was not ideal in terms of its goal of incentivizing multi-agent participation in investments in conservation. Investors prefer to attempt afforestation projects with shorter payback periods, especially projects related to open forest land. Overall, this study supports the belief that parametric management is a better approach to natural resource management than scientific management, but the latter approach still has limitations. Therefore, we propose to prioritize the promotion of parametric management on the closed forest lands of SSFs, but there is no need to hastily mobilize grassroots participation in open forest land management projects.

Temporal and spatial changes in land use and ecosystem service value based on SDGs' reports: a case study of Dianchi Lake Basin, China.

Understanding the impact of land use and ecosystem services on sustainable development goals is a key to achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). Taking Dianchi Lake Basin as the research area, land use data from five periods, 2001, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2019, were analyzed using the dynamic equivalent method to determine ecosystem service value (ESV) and hot spot analysis method to explore temporal and spatial changes in ESV in Dianchi Lake Basin. Three sustainable development goals, SDG15.1.1, SDG15.2, and SDG15.3.1, were selected to quantitatively analyze the impact of land use change in Dianchi Lake Basin. The results showed that (1) in the 20-year study period, the main land use types in Dianchi Lake Basin were forest land, cultivated land, construction land, and water area. In the land transfer, the largest amount of land transferred out is cultivated land, accounting for 35.50% of the total transferred out amount. It is transferred to construction land, resulting in significant expansion of construction land, nearly twice as much. (2) The SDG15.1.1 index of three forest land types in Dianchi Lake Basin showed a downward trend, and the total forest land decreased from 45.36 to 41.80%, with a cumulative decrease of 3.56%, of which 2.35% was caused by the transformation from open forest land to other land types. For watershed SDG15.2 and SDG15.3.1 indicators, all were degraded, but the degradation of high forest (SDG15.2) was the most obvious. (3) From 2001 to 2019, the total ESV in Dianchi Lake Basin initially decreased and then increased before decreasing again, with an overall decrease of 3.687 billion yuan. The ESV in the study area was high in the middle and low in the periphery, and the water area dominated by Dianchi Lake was the highest value area. (4) From 2005 to 2019, the spatial displacement relationship between cold and hot spots dominated by Dianchi Lake was corresponding and obvious, during which the ESV fluctuated violently. This study provides a basis for the sustainable development and ecological construction in typical urbanized watershed.

Effects of Land Use Change on Constitution, Stability, and C, N, P Stoichiometric Characteristics of Soil Aggregates in Southwest China Karst

Responses of soil aggregate stability and nutrient stoichiometry to land use change are of great significance to the protection and restoration of fragile ecosystems. In order to explore the influence of the law of land use change on soil aggregate stability and C, N, and P nutrient stoichiometric characteristics in the karst ecosystem of Southwest China, a typical region of the Southwest China Karst was selected as the study area. A series of sample plots were established for the seven typical land use types, and the constitution; stability; and C, N, and P contents and stoichiometric ratios of soil aggregates were studied. The results showed that land use change significantly affected the soil aggregate stability. The soil aggregate stability of corn fields and abandoned land was relatively high, whereas that of grassland and bare land was relatively low. The soil aggregate stability generally decreased with the increase in soil layer. There were significant differences in the C, N, and P contents of soil aggregates between different land use types. The C and N contents of soil aggregates of open woodland and abandoned land were higher, the C and N contents of grassland were lower, and the P contents of soil aggregates of bare land and abandoned land were relatively higher. Land use change also significantly affected the stoichiometric ratio of soil aggregate C, N, and P. The C:N of soil aggregates of arbor forest land, open forest land, and abandoned land was relatively high, and that of grassland was the lowest. The C:P of soil aggregates of arbor woodland and open woodland was higher than that in shrub woodland and grassland. The soil aggregate N:P of arbor forest land, open forest land, and shrub forest land was higher and was significantly higher than that of bare land and abandoned land. There were significant or extremely significant correlations between the constitution and stability of soil aggregates and the stoichiometric characteristics of soil aggregate C, N, and P. Soil aggregate stability was positively correlated with the mass fraction of large soil aggregates. The mass fraction of large soil aggregates increased, and the stability of aggregates correspondingly increased, which was conducive to the maintenance and accumulation of soil C, N, and P nutrients. These results are of great significance for vegetation restoration, soil and water conservation, and land use regulation in karst ecosystems of Southwest China.

Last tesserae of a fading mosaic: floristic census and forest vegetation survey at Parche di Bilello (south-western Sicily, Italy), a site needing urgent protection measures

This paper illustrates the botanic heritage of Parche di Bilello, a site located in the municipality of Castelvetrano. The study area hosts several woodland fragments dominated by Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Quercus suber and Quercus ilex, respectively. According to historical data, these nuclei represent the last remnants of an open forestland which covered a much wider coastal area between Mazara del Vallo and Sciacca until the end of Middle Age. Phytosociological relevés were focused on these forest nuclei, probably the most representative of south-western Sicily, which correspond to three habitats included in the 92/43 EEC Directive (9320, 9330 and 9340, respectively) and represent the final stage of three different edaphic series. Wild olive forests probably dominated on sandy calcareous soils, holm oaks prevailed on steep calcareous and N-exposed slopes. In contrast, cork oaks mostly occurred on sandy subacid soils issuing from pedogenetic processes on palaeodunes. Moreover, field surveys allowed to list 331 vascular plant taxa. Among them, Linaria multicaulis subsp. humilis, Orobanche balsensis and Serapias orientalis subsp. siciliensis are new to Trapani Province. Detailed information on the current distribution and the synecology of several plant taxa of high biogeographic and conservation interest is also provided. The study site also hosts one habitat of priority interest (6220, i.e. xerophilous Mediterranean perennial grasslands and annual swards) and two species protected by international laws, i.e. the orchid Ophrys lunulata and the lichen Teloschistes chrysophthalmus. Considering the high value of its natural heritage, this territory deserves the adoption of more effective protection measures. For this reason the authors recommend its inclusion as a new Site of Community Interest within the Sicilian Natura 2000 network.

The Effects of Terrain Factors and Cultural Landscapes on Plateau Forest Distribution in Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, China

The Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture is a typical Tibetan plateau area, and its ecological environment is very fragile. It is necessary to explore the terrain and cultural factors for the protection of the local ecological environment. We mainly investigated and quantified the effect of terrain factors and two typical plateau cultural landscapes (temples and villages) on the spatiotemporal variation characteristics of four types of forest landscape in the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture from 1990 to 2015 using remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) technology. The results showed that, under the influence of terrain factors, forest landscapes were only distributed in places with an altitude of 5055 meters above sea level (masl) to 6300 masl, with a slope of 0–27°, and the largest distribution area was shrubbery. The area of the forest decreased with the increase in altitude, and it first rose and then decreased with the increase in slope. Regression analysis results showed that the influence of altitude on closed forest land and open forest land followed a polynomial function, while that on shrubbery followed a logarithmic function, and the impact of slope on the three forest landscapes followed the amplitude version of a Gaussian peak function. Considering cultural factors, temples and villages did not determine the forest distribution in the same way as natural factors do, but they motivated the amount of forest over spatiotemporal scales. Temples had a greater influence on forest protection than villages, and this positive impact was stronger within 6 km. The area of forest distributed around the temple accounts for more than 45.67% of the total forest area, and this area has not changed significantly in 25 years. In summary, altitude and slope affect the natural distribution of the forest, and temples affect the scale of forest distribution. These results reveal the impact of terrain factors and cultural landscapes on forest distribution and could motivate an even more effective management for sustainable forest development.

Practice of barren hilly land consolidation and its impact: A typical case study from Fuping County, Hebei Province of China

Land is the root of rural revitalization, and its core is to reinvigorate land resources through the building up of land capacity. Since the late 1990s, land consolidation efforts have been widely extended to all parts of China. Land consolidation has served as an essential instrument for reinvigorating stock land, strengthening intensive land use, timely supplementing cultivated land, and promoting agricultural modernization, as well as urban-rural integration. This study uses a typical poor village (Dadao Village) in a state-designated impoverished county (Fuping County, Hebei Province), to analyze the socioeconomic benefits and eco-environmental impacts of land consolidation. With the aid of first-hand data from questionnaire surveys, face-to-face interviews and the visual interpretation of land use and land cover changes (LUCC), we found that: 1) the barren hilly land consolidation (BHLC) helps to promote the transformation of resource-advantages into asset-advantages in poverty-stricken areas. In 2017, 60.16% households in the study area gained the additional transferred-income with an annual average of 2843 yuan, while 19.11% households received the wage-income with an annual average of 9871 yuan. 2) Land consolidation inspires farmers’ enthusiasm to participate in village government and helps alleviate rural poverty. From 2014 to 2017, land consolidation has helped 585 poor in the village out of poverty. Meanwhile, by land consolidation, most farmers’ attitudes towards land consolidation have shifted from “not caring” to “have great concern,” and their identity cognition has gradually changed from being bystanders to becoming decision makers and supervisors. 3) Further analysis demonstrated that land consolidation could not only increase the quantity and quality of arable land, but also have a certain impact on eco-environment. During 2014–2016, the BHLC in the study area transformed 242.12 ha unused barren hilly land and open forest land into well-facilitated arable land, and increased the average arable land by 0.19 ha per capita. Also, the index of land use intensity increased by 27.01% between 2014 and 2016. Farmers’ perceptions of environmental awareness have confirmed that such high-intensity LUCC were significant enough to make two-side impacts on eco-environment. We appeal to establish a combined organization and encouragement mechanism of rural land consolidation, to take the full breadth and depth of farmers’ participation into consideration, and to formulate more scientific and sustainable land consolidation planning. Also, we put forward some suggestions and notes for the implementation and promotion of BHLC model. These findings can provide beneficial references for those involved in policymaking and planning in the areas of land consolidation and poverty alleviation in China, as well as other developing countries around the world.

Forestland-dependent households: a primary agent of deforestation in Nigeria?

Abstract Despite global concerns on environment particularly, issues on deforestation, there is a lack of quantitative information on deforestation drivers. The study investigates the role of farm households in deforestation process in Nigeria. Household survey data were obtained from 300 farm households with the aid of personally administered questionnaire through a multistage sampling technique. The data were used to answer a question on how farmers contribute to deforestation process in Nigeria. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Probit regression model. The results show that 64 % of the farmers gain access to cultivate already opened forestland through uncoordinated harvesting of forest trees while others still maintain sustainable forest land use practice – agroforestry. Sex (P < 0.05; β = 2.34), land security (P < 0.01; β = 2.94), personal preference for tree on farm land (P < 0.05; β = −2.45), and non-farm income (P < 0.05; β = 2.50) are factors influencing land use pattern among farm households. The study revealed that most farmers cultivate open forestland, but their continuous cultivation further enhanced forestland use change. The study concludes that rural farm households though one of the agents of forestland use change were found as opportunist and not mostly the primary agent initiating forestland use change in Nigeria. The study negates the conception of several past studies.

Study of suitable oasis scales based on water resource availability in an arid region of China: a case study of Hotan River Basin

The object of this study was to answer a scientific question, i.e., how to determine the suitable scale of natural and artificial oases management based on water resource availability in an arid region. For this purpose, the Hotan River Basin was chosen as the study area, we analyzed the distribution characteristics of natural vegetation in the river basin using remote sensing images, water resources, weather, socioeconomic data, and field survey data. We also divided the natural vegetation into two ecological protection targets: the major and the basic protection zones. Suitable scales of oasis management were calculated under different inflow variations based on the above analysis. We had five major findings. (1) The total area of natural vegetation of the river basin is 4968.87 km2 with forestland, open forestland, high-covered grassland, and low-covered land accounting for 14.08, 14.98, 13.16, and 57.78 % of the total area, respectively. (2) In the middle reaches, the average vegetation distribution ranges for the west and east banks of the Yurunkax River are 5–8 and 34–51 km from the river, respectively. The average vegetation distribution ranges for the west and east banks of the Karakax River are 31–45 and 2–9 km from the river, respectively. In the lower reaches, the average vegetation distribution range is 3–10 km from the river. (3) During high-, normal-, and low-flow periods, the total available water for the river basin is 54.48 × 108, 42.67 × 108 and 34.00 × 108 m3, respectively. (4) The ecological water demand of the Hotan River is 8.85 × 108 m3, and the ecological water demands of the middle and lower reaches are 5.13 × 108 and 3.72 × 108 m3, respectively. (5) The optimal area for the natural oasis in the middle reaches is 3145–3293 km2. This study provides a theoretical basis for planning rational development of similar river basins in arid regions.

Ecological suitability assessment and introduction experiment on Rosa damascena trigintipetala in Sichuan Province, China

This study comprehensively considered the climate, soil, terrain, and land-use type conditions suitable for Rosa damascena trigintipetala and further established an ecological suitability evaluation model of R. damascena trigintipetala in Sichuan Province, China, based on geographic information systems (GIS) and Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) models; then we assessed the different ecological suitability grades for this species in Sichuan Province of China and summarized the suitable land areas and spatial distribution pattern for R. damascena trigintipetala. The results show that the suitable areas (which contain highly suitable, generally suitable, and critically suitable areas) for R. damascena trigintipetala are 307.268x10(4) hm(2), which accounts for 6.34% of the total provincial area. Results also indicate that shrub land and open forest land are the major land-use types suitable for R. damascena trigintipetala, with the suitable areas of 303.162x10(4) hm(2) (6.25% of the total provincial area). An introduction test was conducted in one of the suitable areas, Xichang City, which demonstrated that R. damascena trigintipetala grows well at the experimental sites. The quality of rose oil extracted from R. damascena trigintipetala planted in Xichang meets the Bulgaria Rose Oil Standard, thus verifying the accuracy and reliability of the ecological suitability assessment results.

Simulation of Forest Landscape Dynamics in the Western Margin of Sichuan Basin

Based on Vegetation Dynamics Development Tool (VDDT), the 100(1989-2089) years forest landscape dynamics in the western margin of Sichuan Basin under 3 scenarios were simulated. Management measures such as closing the land for reforestation, forestation, stand improvement, reinforcement planting can increase forest land area, reduce open forest land area,suitable land for forest and shrub land.Artificial Cryptomeria fortunei plantations get more negative influences from rodent damage than artificial Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations. After earthquake, rodent damages intensity and frequency increased, suitable land for forest and unused land first increased and then decreased, forest land first decreased and then increased; forest land decreased and unused land increased in 2089, compared with the scenario without rodent damage or earthquake.

Analysis on Plantation Potential for <i>Pistacia chinensis</i> as an Energy Plant in Sichuan Province of China Based on GIS

This article evaluated the plantation potential of Pistacia chinensis in Sichuan Province of China based on the spatial analyst technology of Geographic Information System and Analytic Hierarchy Process. The evaluation results show that the high suitable, suitable, moderate suitable and no suitable areas for the plantation of P. chinensis are 28×104hm2, 160×104hm2, 177×104hm2 and 690×104hm2 respectively. The high suitable areas of shrub land, open forest land and unutilized land for its plantation are 9×104hm2, 16×104hm2 and 3×104hm2 respectively. The high suitable regions distribute in fifteen prefecture-level cities. Yibin City has the biggest high suitable area with 4.92×104hm2. Dazhou City has the biggest suitable area of 23.47×104hm2. Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture aren’t suitable for its plantation basically. The evaluation results can provide scientific basis for the planting plan of P. chinensis to a certain extent.

Land Resources Information Acquisition Based on Multi-Temporal TM Images

Selected the lower Tarim River in 2000 and 2010 TM / ETM data source, the use of human - machine interaction visual interpretation of data obtained by two interpretation map, interpret the results based on two data LUCC trends in variation analysis, the results show that: in the past 10 years, the Tarim River increased 28735 ha cultivated land (hm2), the natural increase of 25846 hectares of vegetation (hm2). Forest land was slowly decreasing trend, the decrease in the main area into open woodland and urban settlements; high, shrub and grass cover showed a degree of degradation. Conclusion: The study area in recent years has woodland, open forest land reduction and degradation shows the degradation of habitat area, with the increase of human reclamation area, the regional water consumption will significantly increase, which is lower Tarim river water to a certain pressure.

Analysis of Forest Resource Change in Mao’er Mountain Forest Farm Based on GIS

This paper, based on the forest map of Mao’er Mountain in 1983 and forest inventory sub-compartment database of Mao’er Mountain in 2004, and with the support of geographical information system (GIS), presents the results of study of forest resource change in the periods, which reflected the change of forest type spatial distribution. Furthermore, this study focuses on the construction and present situation of dynamic forest resource by overlaying the forest resource distribution with DEM in which the vectorization of topographical maps was made by using the vector data for creating the digital elevation model (DEM). The results demonstrate that the area of study region decreased to 216 hm2; and the area of open forest land, new afforestation, non-standing forest, farmland and wetland were decreased; the area of forest land, rivers and lakes, agricultural land and the road land are increasing. Meanwhile, it also indicts that the construction of forest resources was not reasonable, in which the proportions of midlife and near-mature forest are larger, the stocks of midlife and near-mature forest increases, and the stock of mature forest decreased greatly. Finally, the study focuses on the forest resource spatial distribution by overlay analysis combined DEM with forest resources construction, which aimed to adjust the current unreasonable situation for the sustainable management of forest resources in the future.

An assessment of restoration success to forests planted for ecosystem restoration in loess plateau, Northwestern China

Using ecosystem attributes identified by the Society of Ecological Restoration International, we assessed three restoration projects in the loess plateau, northwestern China, including planting Larix principis-rupprechtii (LS) and Pinus tabulaeformis (PS) on shrubland, and planting L. principis-rupprechtii on open forest land (LO). The reestablishment of native species in LS and PS was poorer than LO because of the excessive stand density. Species diversity, seedling number, and seedling diversity were significantly higher in LO than in LS and PS. Soil nutrient was also significantly higher in the LO treatment. The vegetation composition, species diversity, and soil nutrient in LO, however, were more similar to these in the reference. Our results indicate that planting L. principis-rupprechtii on open forest land had accelerated the succession of the ecosystem for approximately 30 years. But the poor natural regeneration of L. principis-rupprechtii suggests that post-planting activities in LO are required after timber harvesting or the natural mortality of the L. principis-rupprechtii. Management operation such as selective thinning will be required in LS and PS to promote the true restoration of native species diversity in the future.

Economic analysis of closing degraded Boswellia papyrifera dry forest from human interventions — A study from Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, environmental degradation leads to a reduction of forest areas with economically important tree species like Boswellia papyrifera. In an attempt to reverse this development and assist natural rehabilitation, closing degraded forest from free grazing, fuel wood collection and other interference is practiced in Tigray. Sustainability of this management will, among other things, depend on the resources' tangible benefits. This study aimed to determine and compare net benefits (in Ethiopian Birr (ETB) per ha) from the closed and open Boswellia papyrifera forestlands. Production and household surveys were carried out in Jijike and Siye tabias of Abergelle woreda in northern Ethiopia. Data on costs and benefits of frankincense production were collected from firms trading the product. Net benefits from forestlands and croplands were determined using the Net Present Value criterion. The estimated mean frankincense productions were 127 kg/ha/yr for closed forestland and 84.54 kg/ha/yr for open forestland. A significant difference ( p < 0.05) was observed between per tree mean frankincense yield of closed and open sites. The average grass harvest from closed area was 2851 kg/ha/yr. The financial Net Present Values were 8622 ETB/ha for closed and 6468 ETB/ha for open forestlands. These values were by 4574 ETB and 2005 ETB higher than the sum of NPV from crop and crop residuals of a hectare of cropland in the study area of the two sites, respectively. Exporting frankincense could generate foreign exchange of 53.28 and 39.05 USD/ha/yr from closed and open sites, respectively. Rural households earn about 74% of the annual total revenue (ETB/ha) from closed and open area as wage for tapping and collecting frankincense and using of grass. Sensitivity analysis showed that managing degraded Boswellia papyrifera forestland as closed area always generates a higher NPV than the open one in case of changes in discount rate and prices of inputs and outputs. Thus, managing the forest through closed areas is a competitive land-use alternative and provides higher net benefits than both open forestland and agricultural croplands.

Succession of understory vegetation in managed and seminatural Scots pine forests in eastern Finland and Russian Karelia

The aim of this study was to compare the understory vegetation in chronosequences representing seminatural and managed Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests on dryish heaths of the Vaccinium type. The data represent the middle boreal vegetation zone and were collected in eastern Finland and the Dvina area of Karelia, on both sides of the border between Finland and the Russian Federation. Species diversity and the coverage of the various life-form groups (ground lichens, mosses, liverworts, grasses, herbs, dwarf shrubs, and tree seedlings) were used to analyse the properties of the ground vegetation over the succession from open forest land to closed forest communities. The clearest differences in diversity between the seminatural forests mainly influenced by fire and managed forests occurred in the early stages of succession. Forest management appeared to increase the species richness at the beginning of succession. The seminatural stands were rich in Cladonia lichens and dwarf shrubs up until tree canopy closure; however, the abundance of mosses was lower in the seminatural stands. Forest management favoured an abundance of grasses, notably Deschampsia flexuosa, which was common after clear-cutting. The use of prescribed burning in silviculture could result in more natural vegetation succession dynamics in managed stands.

Transformation and assessment of Chinese pine pure plantations for soil and water conservation in western Liaoning Province, P. R. China

Western Liaoning Province is characterized by huge areas of lowly-efficient Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.) pure plantations. How to transform these plantations has become an increasingly significant management problem. In this study, the authors summarized the approaches, which are based on close-to-nature silvicultural system, to transform the pure pine plantations. Native broadleaved trees were planted in three methods: 1) after strip clearcutting, 2) after patch clearcutting; 3) on the open forestland and the forest edge. The transformation targets and the selection of tree species were expatiated in this paper. The key techniques and their application conditions for each method were analyzed and discussed. Through investigation and contrastive analysis, the assessment was made to the stands transformed by strip method. Results showed that the mixed stands at 16 years after transformation had an obvious layered structure and the species richness of understorey vegetation increased by 23.5%–52.9%. Soil enzyme activities of urease, phosphatase and sucrase increased by 6%–142%, 46%–99% and 31%–200%, respetively. Moreover, the transformed stands could effectively control the occurrence of pine caterpillars in plantations. Consequently the transformations enhanced the function of soil and water conservation.

The Acclimatization of Bees to a Heather Region

This lecture, given at the Sixth Bee Research Association Conference at St. Andrews in June 1972, gives a brief summary of some of the research done by the author and his colleagues on the important question of acclimatization. One of the two areas used for the experiments is the open forest land on the south-west coast of France, where heather gives the main (late) honey flow. The other area is the Paris basin, where the seasonal cycle is a more usual one, with spring and summer flows.It is very easy nowadays to transport queens (and package bees) from one part of the world to another, and a strain of bees known to the beekeeper only from glowing descriptions may seem to offer him a miraculous solution to problems of low yields, poor wintering, and so on. The experiments described here show that the introduction of queens from a quite different type of region may be a traumatic experience for the colonies, and that the outcome is not necessarily beneficial.

Bluestem Range in the Piney Woods of Louisiana and East Texas

S INCE virgin stands of longleaf pine in Louisiana and East Texas were cut, the pine has not reproduced successfully on most of the area. Clear cutting, indiscriminate woods burning, hog-rooting, and brown-spot needle disease teamed up or worked separately to prevent a new crop of pine trees. Grasses, predominately bluest ems (Andropogon spp.) , quickly increased to dense stands on the open forest land. Though the area has an 8-month growing season and averages about 45 to 55 inches of annual rainfall, crop farming has not been successful in most of the cut-over piney woods territory, because the topsoils are shallow and the subsoils are poorly drained. The cut-over land, largely unfenced is grazed as free range by cattle, hogs, sheep, and goats. Beef cattle are more numerous and valuable than all other kinds of stock. Many of the herds belong to farmers or woodland residents who own less than 100 acres of land and less than 50 cows. The average herd grazes yearlong on the range and is not fed adequate protein or mineral supplements during fall and winter. Calf crops average between 35 and 60 percent and calves weigh about 300 pounds in fall unless fall-winter care is good and herd management is practiced (Campbell and Rhodes, 1944). There is great opportunity in this area for increased production of both timber and meat. What is needed is reforestation, pasture development, range improvement, and better management of timber, forage, and livestock. CHARACTERISTICS OF PINEY WOODS RANGES